THE STATE OF BAMBOO AND RATTAN DEVELOPMENT IN INDONESIA

Rattan is considered as an important forest product in terms of domestic and international trade. Approximately 60 to 80% of the world rattan demand comes from Indonesia. Over the last five years, Indonesia has produced about 120,000 tons of rattan material with the total export volume of approximately 80,000 tons annually, and domestic consume of about 35% of the total rattan production.

Seven out of sixteen genus of existing rattan in the world have been growing in Indonesia; these are Calamus, Daemonorops, Khortalsia, Ceratolobus, Plectocomopsis, Cornera and Miryalepis. In addition, 306 out of 516 rattan species growing in tropical rain forest exist in Indonesia. Furthermore, 53 species have been processed and used for various purposes. These are, among others: Calamus caesius, locally called 揜otan sega"; Calamus manan, or 揜otan manau"; Daemonorops sabut or 揜otan taman"; Calamus trachycoleus or 揜otan irit"; Calamus inops or 揜ota tahiti"; and Calamus symphysipus or 揜otan ombol"

In Indonesia rattan has naturally been grown almost in all major islands such as Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku, Nusa Tenggara, and Irian Jaya. Some major provinces such as Aceh, all provinces in Kalimantan, South-, Central- and Southeast Sulawesi and Irian Jaya are leading as rattan producers. For more than one century, rattan regeneration has been developed in a small scale in several provinces, i.e. West Sumatera, Central and East Kalimantan. The regeneration mostly are carried out by local people.

Bamboo plays an important role in rural development of Indonesia. Bamboo is found in natural forests, plantation forests and in community forest areas in many villages of Indonesia; mostly in Java, Bali, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku, Irian Jaya, and Nusa Tenggara. Some of the Indonesian bamboo species have been cultivated by people for hundreds of years in their back yards and gardens. It is one of the multipurpose plant species cultivated almost in Indonesian rural areas.

Bamboo culms are commonly used as construction materials of the households in rural area whereas bamboo handicrafts provide an important additional income. The wide uses of bamboo抯 give more employment opportunities and better income distribution. Millions of bamboo culms and thousands of tons of bamboo shoots are harvested annually. Socio-economic roles of bamboo in Indonesia is significantly viable. Bamboo in many parts of Indonesia is the most universally useful plant known to mankind. Life would be completely different without it.

So far, there is no national inventory data available on bamboo natural forest and plantation forests. No attempts have been made to design and to collect those data yet, even by any Government, private and NGOs organization as well. Some estimation predicted that there are more than 5,000,000 ha of natural bamboo forest areas in Indonesia, mostly grown in lowland and mid-highland tropical rain forests in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku, Irian Jaya, Nusa Tenggara islands, and Java. The planted bamboo forests are also found in Sumatra (for examples in the districts of Simalungun, Tapanuli Utara and Karo), Sulawesi (for examples in Tana Toraja high-lands, Gowa, and Minahasa), Maluku and Irian Jaya as well.

In East Java, Yudodibroto (1985) reported that there are a total of 26,000 ha of bamboo forests are found in Banyuwangi, of which 7,700 ha is reported economically productive to supply a paper mill. A second bamboo forest complex located in Gowa, South Sulawesi, over an area of 24,000 ha.

Some important bamboo抯 in Indonesia such as Bambu betung (Dendrocalamus aspers); Bambu gombong (Gigantochloa verticulata); Bambu hitam (Gigantochloa atter); Bambu tali (Gigantochloa apus); and Bambu tutul (Bambusa vulgaris) grow in the side of river, with the elevation ranged 300m to 3,700m above sea level. These have been grown naturally in most of major islands such as Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Nusa Tenggara.

In 1993, it was estimated that over the next 10 years, 1.25 million hectares of rattan plantations would be established. Some of that area would be developed under government-assisted projects. Furthermore, recognizing that the export ban抯 effect of depressing prices would create hardship in the short-term for small-scale rattan producers. Development projects were considered as a means of offsetting this effect while also supporting efforts to increase the proportion of cultivated rattan in non-forest lands. Rattan plantation were also conceived of as an important means of maintaining supplies of large diameter canes such as manau which were in short supply. From the 11.50 million ha of forest rattan areas, the estimation of production capacity for all species is about 12,391,477 tons. According to the survey carried out by The Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops in 15 provinces in 1986, there were about 696,900 ton per year of Annual Allowable Cut (AAC). However, the utilization of rattan is still far below the production capacity that only 120,000 tons have been extracted.

Bamboo is classified into Graminacea Forestry, some of bamboo species are native to Indonesia area. The distribution of this plant is in the area with temperature about 9-36^oC, minimum commodity 80% and annual rainfall 1000 mm.

In Indonesia bamboo exist almost in all major islands, mostly in Java where the distribution and population are higher than the other islands. Most of bamboo scattered in the area which have climate type A,B,C,D,E and F. The wet area is commonly exist more species, and the drier the area the smaller the number species of bamboo. In the driest area, it can only be found one species of bamboo which is bambu duri (Bambusa blumeana).

Instead of climate, the bamboo plantation is affected also by the altitude, the higher the area the higher the number of species. Bamboo can be found in the area with altitude from 0 to 3000 m. The other factor which affect bamboo is the fertility of land. Moreover, bamboo can grow in either dry or wet land. Like bamboo, rattan exist and grow in most of Indonesia islands, such as in Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan and Sulawesi.

There are indications of active community-based management of rattan forest resources within many village areas. In some cases, harvesters from other villages may gather rattan within the boundaries of a given village provided they have the promission of village leaders who in turn perceive they have management control over traditional forest lands. Many times such perceptions are not backed up by formal land use allocation. But even where the MoF&EC has given permits harvesting and planting obligation. There is still a risk because of logging or conversion to cocca farms (kebun coklat), either illegal and uncontrolled or sanctioned by other MoF&EC officials. With the decree of the Minister of Forestry and Estate Crops 1998 on community forestry may provide a mechanism for recognizing and protection sound rattan (and forest habitat).

The Government of Indonesia has consider the sustainability of bamboo in order to fulfill the need of economic and ecological demand. Any program on bamboo development is emphasized on the 揑nsitu" where the activity is conducted in area and the 揈xsitu" where the conservation activity was done in the alocated area.

In order to improve the bamboo conservation activity, the government provide training and extension on the use of bamboo, which consider its sustainability. The government provide information on the input to sustain the bamboo and rattan resources in orther community, non government organization, and private company pay attention to conserve this important resources.

In general, harvesting of rattan to be done by the farmer as an additional income. The farmer has an experience in selecting the rattan to be harvested. They take only those who has big and medium diameter. The smaller one is usually conserved for the next harvesting. In addition, it is reported that the capacity of rattan production is about 12.391.477 ton, while the annual allowable cut (AAC) exist is about 696.900 ton, and only 125,000 ton/year product realization. This means that the harvesting of rattan has considered the conservation aspects.

3.1. Propagation techniques.

a. Bamboo.

Bamboo plantation in Indonesia was done using traditionally propagation which still face many problems. The traditional propagation used the offsets, the cut of culms with rhizome, and culm segments. Local people prefer this first method of propagation because young clumps are quickly produced. For propagation by rhizome cutting or offsets, 1 and 2 year old culm are used. One draw back of this method is the risk of impairing the health and vigor of the mother plant when preparing many offsets. Other problems are the transport of the bulky material which is susceptible of drying out, and the high labor costs involved in the collecting the offsets for mass propagation on a large scale (Dransfield and Widjaja, 1995).

In West Java, the local people have observed that the best mother plant for propagation by culm cuttings is a culm which has produced shoots twice or is 2 years old. Either the whole culm or culm segments can be used as vegetative propagates. If the whole culm is used, it is buried. The second method involves culm patrons bearing 1 or 2 nodes taken from culms at the age of 6 months to 2 years, usually 1 year, depending on the species. The branches are pruned to a length of 10-20 cm and foliage is removed. Cutting are planted horizontally at a depth of 5-10 cm, 1 node cutting can be planted obliquely with the node buried. Other methods of propagation by brash cuttings, layering and tissue culture, and cultivation up to the present was conducted mostly on experimental scale.

Although rhizome cuttings are traditionally the preferred mode of vegetative propagation, culm cuttings have the advantage that more cuttings can be obtained from one clump and the cost of transport handling and labor are lower.

Bamboo research on cultivation in Indonesia is in an early pioneering stage. The natural resources were more or less ignored by the authorities as well as scientist, resulting in shortages of data and information, and few researches being conducted on this valuable commodity.

Up to the present, most of the research was conducted on taxonomy and specification of the species, while research on propagation techniques was conducted on and off.

b. Rattan.

At present, location of naturally grown rattan is becoming further and further away from the roads or rivers that rattan collectors now use, so that, they reluctant to collect rattan due to a high cost of transportation. It is therefore cultivation of rattan is now being pushed. Three main objectives of rattan cultivation are to increase forest land productivity, to promote the potential of rattan and to secure the sustainability and supply to meet the market demand.

The first and most successful rattan plantations are those were established in the areas around Barito, Kapuas and Kaharian in kalimantan about the year of 1850. Since then, there are of small holding along the alluvial flats of Barito River and its tributaries in Central and South Kalimantan has increased to 15,000 ha with main species of Calamus trachycoleus. By the end of the 1980s the village level plantations were sharing about 10% of Indonesian抯 raw rattan supplies.

The successful of cultivation is an indication that cultivation of these species can be developed intensively on a small holder basis, given suitable land as climate. This planting method can be used and modified while establishing a near large rattan plantation. Nevertheless, it can not always be assumed that the cultivation method developed for one species in one habitat and climate can be applied in the cultivation of other species elsewhere. Research needs to be carried out before untried species can be introduced into a large intensive cultivation, for instance provenance trial and the like. Other important aspects of cultivation that must be carefully considered are light and fertilizer requirements, pest and disease, spacing and line maintenance of rattan.

In addition, as strategy to counteract shortage raw rattan for industry, Indonesia has been actively promoting development of rattan plantation on which a long tradition already exists combine with the recent tech logy of cultivation. Perhutani as a state-own forest company in Indonesia has been developing approximately 22,000 ha of rattan plantation, mostly in West Java (90%) province and less in Central Java and East Java. It has been planted since 1980s by applying tree environment and rectangular system.

In general the silvicultural techniques on bamboo and rattan do not much applied by the community. As mentioned in the above chapter, bamboo plantation is commonly done using a traditional methods. The materials being used are offset, culm segments, and cut off culms with rhyzome. The following activity after plantation does usually not got any attention where people depend it on the environment. To increase the growth of bamboo plantation fertilizer may be given 4 to 8 weeks often plantation. There is no other treatment to the plantation up to the time for harvesting.

Rattan plantation is commonly regerenerate naturally, only in a few areas rattan is planted, the maintenance of rattan is also depend on the environment until the harvesting time.

Rattan in Indonesia has been harvested traditionally since hundred of years ago from natural forest. The method is descended from one generation to another without any modern cultivation method. In rural areas, many rattan species have been used for centuries for numerous purposes such as for almost any other purposes requiring strength and elasticity combined with lightness. Moreover, houses, fences, bridges and even boats are bound together with rattan, often without the use of a single nail.

Rattan with large diameter is the most to be extracted, while rattan with small diameter usually cultivated. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to control rattan harvesting. Even in controlled and well-policed areas, high qualities of rattan still continue to be taken illegally.

Furthermore, various strategies have been taken by government to develop rattan in Indonesia between 1968 and 1993. The most strategic policy was the banning of raw rattan export in 1979 which was aimed to stimulate semi-finished rattan based industry and to ensure the sustainable.

Bamboo plays an important role in rural development of Indonesia. Bamboo is found in many village of Indonesia mostly in Java, Bali, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku, Irian Jaya, and Nusa Tenggara. Some of the bamboo species have been cultivated by rural community in their yards and some gardens. It is one of the multipurpose plant species cultivated almost in Indonesia natural areas.

So far, there is limited information on feasibility study on determining suitable bamboo in some areas in Indonesia.

In Indonesia utilization of bamboo culm for construction as well as for non-construction purposes have been recognized for long time. For example for building material B. bamboo抯, B. blumeana, B. vulgaris, Ad. asper, G. apus, G. atter, G. pseudoarundinacea are commontly used. In some part of Indonesia local people prefer to use B. atra, B. forbesii, Schizostachyum brachycladum as well as G. apus, G. scortechnii, S. zollingeri for making basket. For raw material of paper the species of B. bamboos, B. blumeana, D. strictus are used. For musical instruments such as 揳ngklung" G. atroviolacea, G. atter, G. levis, G. pseudoarundinacea, G. robusta or D. asper and G. apus, G. scortechnii and S. latifolium are used. For furniture the favored species use are G. atroviolia and D. asper (Dransfield and Widjaja, 1995).

In Indonesia bamboo shoot has many local names such as bung in East and Central Java and iwung in West Java. It is know that some bamboo shoots can not be eaten because of their bitter taste. Among the species of bamboo in Indonesia that their bamboo shoots can be eaten are aur bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris), ater (Gigantochloa atter), gombong (Gigantochloa pseudoarundi-nacea), jalur (Schizostachyum longispi-culatum), and betung (Dendrocalamus asper) (Muchtadi 1994). Some companies produce bamboo shoot production they are use Dendrocalamus asper, Bambusa vulgaris, and Bambusa latifolius.

In the future development of bamboo shoot industry has a very good prospect. Indonesia have a lot of bamboo species that produce a good taste bamboo shoot. Domestic market as well as export market are very bright, but the main constarints are the low price of canned bamboo shoot and maintaining continous bamboo shoot production throughout the year.

Rattan industry was increased since 1986. The major product which is processed in this industry are furniture, baskets, waving and others.

The steps in processing rattan are as follow:

Washing entails the removal of stil intact inner epidermis of the leaf sheath adhering to the cane and the silcified epidermis of the cane as well as dirt encrusted on the stem. The removal of the remaining part of the leaf sheath is a tedious and slow process. There are several methods of cleaning rattan applied in Indonesia. What was observed was the use of a metal ring through which the canes are passed. While it is claimed that a person can wash 200 to 250 pieces a day, observation indcates that it would be physically difficult to attain this. This would mean washing a sega piece.

The primary aim of drying rattan is to reduce its moisture content to less than 20% to prevent the attack of stain fungi and wood boring insects especially during storage. Staining can occur within 24 hours after cutting. It is important to wash te rattan soonest and subject them to drying before staining occurs.

The rattan is dried on platforms raised about 50 cm from the ground. The platform is made of wooden poles or with bamboo stingers or entirely of lumber. The usual material used is iron wood or ulin wood (5 cm x 8 cm) which is sid to last for over 20 years. One such platform can contain as much as 2 tons. Drying the rattan can take from 7-10 years when sunny and can extend to 15 days or more when cloudy. When it rain the materials are converted with plastics. The drying stock is turned 2-3 times a day to improve uniformity of drying by allowing the materials at the middle and bottom better exposure. In some instances village processors contract the labor for sulfurizing and drying. A person can work on an average of 2mt per day. On this basis the estimated cost of drying 1kg of rattan at the farm level is Rp.11 in Sampit, Central Kalimantan while in Southeast Sulawesi it is Rp.6.13

Sorting which is done after drying is done to segregate the rattan according to diameter classes and quality. In practice, however, rattan is sold as a lot of mixed grades. Grade classification indicates that on the average, 20% falls under the first class, 55% under the second class and 25% under the third class. Sorting also includes the culling out of defective cannes such as those infested with stain as well as those with cuts and bruises. Immature portions of the cane re also removed. An estimated percentage weight loss of 3% occurs in sorting.

Rattan is bundled in weights of 50 kg or 100 kg with the latter s the more predominant practice. Bundling sometimes include the trimming of the ends immediately before trying up the materials. The estimated rate of bundling is about 500 kg per person pr day making the cost of this operation in Sampit to be Rp.6.0/kg and Rp.3.5/kg in Southeast Sulawesi.

The rattan is also straightened for easier processing in the succeeding steps of production. In some instances the rattan is placed over a charcoal stove to heat it a little before is straightened while in other factories it is done without pre-heating. It is estimated that one person on the average would be able to straighten the equivalent of 300 kg per day. Thus, the labor cot I Rp.10/kg in Sampit and Rp.5.83/kg in Southeast Sulawesi. Practically no weight loss is incurred in this process.

Orders for peels (skins) and cores (wickers) are usually made for particular lengths. It is, therefore, necessary to cut the rattan to these lengths. This step likewise allows the culling out of defective portions of the cane where there are cuts and bruises and other defects. The material cut are also shorted out according to length and diameter. The labor cost of this step based on a production of 350 kg per day is Rp.8.58/kg in Sampit and Rp.5/kg in Southeast Sulawesi. In this step, it is estimated that bout 10 percent of the original weight is lost.

Production of skin is done by passing the rattan through a peeling machine that peels off the skin leaving a central portion called core which becomes the raw material for the production of wickers and other side cores. For the smaller diameter rattan the material is peeled on 4 sides leaving a square core. The larger ones allow the peeling off of 5.6 oer sometimes 8 peels. If narrow skin is required the resulting core assumes a multi-pointed-stanshape . Usually 3 persons man one peeling machine. The labor cost here is Rp.18/kg and Rp.10.5 respective for Sampit and Southeast Sulawesi. The waste generated is about 9 percent of the original weight.

As mentioned before, that the major uses of bamboo and rattan are as materials for furniture and handicrafts. Since bamboo and rattan grew in many places in Indonesia, this source can support the industry which produce furniture and handicrafts. With the new trend where people prefer to use the natural product (back to nature), the role of bamboo and rattan become more important. In addition, the local and international demand at nearest time become increasingly high, either for kitchen equipment, tooth stick, furniture, etc. In the village, moct of the home construction components are made of bamboo.

Many sectors, outside forestry, agriculture and environment, are involved and related to the bamboo and rattan. Those are Industry, Trade, Tourisme, Culture and Education. The Ministry of Industry has a role in developing industry whose materials from rattan and bamboo. While Ministry of Trade has a role in promoting export of bamboo and rattan products. Ministry of Tourism, Cultural and Education has a roles in promoting musical equipments and handicrafts which are interesting to the tourist. With the various roles of many sectors, the existence of bamboo and rattan is very important. Bamboo and rattan are the sources which can be used in their activities. Moreover, at recent time the bamboo plantation atract many tourist.

Bamboo manufacture in Indonesia is so wide since the uses of this materials is also various. Moreover, the data on the bamboo manufacturer is so limited, this is also caused by the fact that many of bamboo industry done by home-industry, especially for handicraft, musical instrument and housing.

While, the big manufacturer is especially those who make chopstick, furniture, cordage, construction, basketry, thatching, matting, broom handles, furniture, walking strikes, bird traps, animal traps, bird cages, etc.

This is almost the some with the rattan materials. Most of semi-finished local product is done by home-industry, while the manufacturer mostly for import is done by industry. The total number of rattan industry are as stated in the following table.

The standards in grading the products of bamboo do not much implemented. Where as, the grading standard for rattan is classified into several groups dependent on the species and diameter the rattan. For the species, the rattan classified into three groups; rotan pulut, rotan sega and rotan kambang. The first is the highest quality among other group of species. For diameter, the classification is devided into two groups; less than and more than 24 mm.

Indonesia accounts for a very large proportion of the world抯 raw rattan production, and a dominant share of rattan exports. While exact numbers are unavailable because published data sources rarely reveal the rattan content of furniture and other finished products, it was claimed by knowledgeable trade observers that Indonesia抯 share in 1987 of the world market for rattan raw material was 70-90 percent.

Indonesia market share has almost certainly fallen with the search for alternative sources of raw material supply, induced by the export bans and with the reduced supply of its own rattan on the world market. Nevertheless, it is clear that Indonesia remains the largest raw rattan source and rattan exporter (now exported primarily in the form of finished products) and that its share of raw rattan in world trade is reasonable in the range of 50-75 percent. A longstanding rattan furniture producer puts Indonesia抯 current share in the upper part of this range, 65-70 percent. Indonesia抯 actions, therefore, still have a large impact on the world rattan market.

From 1971 to 1986, the volume of rattan exports grew at a compound annual rate of 26 percent in real value terms. Then, for the seven years following the imposition of the export value grew more slowly than before but still more than doubled over the period.

Rattan production and processing has involved a wide range of rural and urban groups for over one hundred years from planters to furniture makers. Rattan production and trade has played an important employment and revenue role, particularly in Sumatra, Kalimantan and Sulawesi. Small-and medium-scale rattan processor are labour intensive. Primary stackholders in rattan resource management range from small-scale producers who either gather as the cottage industry of mat-weavers in the outer islands, to export-based rattan furniture factories on Java.

Estimates of the numbers of people who gather wild rattan from the forest are particularly problematic. In 1983, there was said to be around 100,000 people involved in the rattan industry, some 17,000 of whom were in the handicraft industry (Silitonga et al. 1993). In later years, the wider rattan production and trade community with its support services expanded. The Governor of Kalimantan in 1992 spoke of 700,000, half the province population, having some economic stake in rattan (Kompas 1992b).

Bamboo and rattan craftmanship provides suplementary incomes for the villages in the rural areas. Bamboo industry mostly are small-scale industries.Its contribution to the country抯 unemployment issues has been significantly benefiting rural sector抯 social-economic development.

In east Java, the number of people and related aspects involved in the bamboo industry. For instance, in 1990, there were 22.229 people involved in bamboo industrial centre and in 1991 increased to be 59.858 people.

In West Java, bamboo might be thought of as a rare, exotic, and ornamental plant. The rustling bamboo grove is a familiar sight, and the uses of bamboo has so numerous social and cultural values that life without it would be hard to imagine.

The property of West Java is certainly one of the most popular musical instruments made of bamboo , the so called ANGKLUNG and KULIN-TANG in North Sulawesi. The angklung and kulintang instrument consists of framed tuned bamboo tubes or resonators usually two to a frame.

Marketing of bamboo and rattan in Indonesia involves domestics and export channels. Domestics trade is essentially (a) local trade in the village, towns, districs, cities and provincies and (b) interselular ( inter island trade). Rattan coming from the forest of Kalimantan , Sulawesi and Sumatra eventually find their way to Java processors and manufacturers whose output is primarily for export although a small proportion is sold to the domestic market.

The export of rattan can be on raw and semi-finished materials. Export is also originated from the main ports of Kalimantan, Sumatra and Sulawesi. However, within these islands, a small portion is manufactured into finished product for local consumption. In 1986, about 50-60 % of local rattan export of Indonesia originated from Tanjung Perak, Surabaya. The rest came from other major ports such as Belawan, Tanjung Priok, Sampit, Kuala Kapuas, Wani, Donggala and Ujung Pandang. At present, only Belawan, Tanjung Priok and Tanjung Perak have container terminals.

The typical domestic trade involves the flow of rattan from the farmer/harvester to the collector or village trader to the district trader or processor within and outside the provinces and then to the processor / manufacturers in Java. This trade channels is as follows:

Farmer/Harvester ->Collector Village traders->District traders processors->Export/provincial trader interinsular trade

The collector or village middlemen provide the link between the farmer/harvester and the higher level trader. The latter are usually the HPH holders with the village trader acting as their agents who make arrangements regarding price and required volume. The harvester usually received advanced payments from the collector or village traders while the balance is paid upon delivery of the rttan. Harvester usually go in groups of 5-20 persons and may stay in forest for 1-2weeks. A harvester can get 20-30 kg of rattan per day. Some harvesters are employed by rattan farmers as workers in their farm and they received less than half the farm price of rattan. A few farmer are collectors of village traders themselves and may perform primary processing of rattan before sold to town or district traders/processors.

5.3. Some Bamboo and Rattan Enterprises

Recently policy desicions regarding rattan export trade are expected to change the structure of the Indonesian rattan industry. Processors who used to export semi-finished products will have to make adjustments in production capacity as in the near term the domestic market is limited in production technology if they intend to enter the handicraft and furniture market.

Manufacturers in Sulawesi and Kalimantan although having competitive advantage in the raw materials must attract skilled workers from Java or trained their own people. More criticals, however, is the lack of container facilities in shipping finished products. One newly established furniture company in Ujung Pandang and another in Samarinda have contracted a shipping company to send containerized ships for this purpose. The former which is still operating at 30% capacity is affiliated with a Philippine furniture firm hence is now employing six Filipinos providing technical expertise in management and production. The owner of the Samarinda firms is now training a limited number of worker hence production is still minimal. Event manufacturers in Java whose workers have acquired skills find labor productivity to be quite low. Other lack capital to go into large-scale production or they find the interest rate for formal loans too high while some do not have the appropriate production technology. Others problems include poor marketing net work, limited outlet and reasonable of sales particularly those products directed to Japan. Others are finding is dificult to obtain the high quality rattan. Nevertheless, the manufacturers believe that the market prospects from rattan are bright as many of them are now receiving large orders from importers.

The rattan policy regime with restricted trade was established from 1979 to 1989, particularly during the last half of the 1980s. It encompassed a number of objectives ranging from export development to increased welfare and resource conservation. The objectives are summarized below :

(1) Raise the Value of Rattan Exports by Diverting Exports of Predominantly Raw and Semi-Finished Rattan to Finished Products Only.

Nationwide policy instruments (1979-1992)

(1) Effective Export Ban (Prohibitive Export Tax) of 揜aw" and Semi-Finished Rattan.

A principal objective in line with the National Pogram of Bamboo Management is to improve bamboo utilization continuously for rural community prosperity. The following aims should be achieved:

a. Make rural community familiar with bamboo management in order to improve their income;

b. Decrease illegal forest cutting;

c. Increase efforts on soil and water conservation and prevent a critical land;

d. Increase on bamboo research with its development to support sustainable bamboo utilization and development continuosly;

e. Increase an investment on bamboo industry and bussiness.

Policy management of bamboo species in Indonesia could be described as follows :

a. Conservation of bamboo species in each province.

In order to prevent bamboo from distinction, therefore National Park for bamboo (Taman Pelestarian Bambu) is necessary to be established or bamboo plantation should be established. Nowadays, the available bamboo park is about 10 hectares which comprises + 3000 of stems or 60 of species, collected from all parts of the Indonesian territory, and managed by State Forest Company, Perum Perhutani. Furthermore, the park wil be developed up to 25 hectares by collecting the other species from other countries.

b. Development of private bamboo plantation and home industry.

Private bamboo plantation necessary to be developed through appropriate technique/pattern of planting, maintenance and harvest/ exploitation so that high quality of bamboo can be produced. Besides this, home industry is also necessary to be developed in line with market oriented both domestic and international market. In connection with this, the following effort should be made :

(1) To give credit or soft loan facilities for planting activity.

(2) To promote bamboo plantation in the area which have home industry activity.

(3) To develop an assistance for private land or forest area by involving society抯 participation.

(4) To implement inventory and to formulate bamboo development plant of 12 provinces and the priority is given to the following provinces : North Sumatra, Bengkulu, Lampung, West Java, Bali, NTB and South Sulawesi. Whereas the developing projects are situated in Central of Java, DIY, South Kalimantan, and NTT.

c. Development of bamboo state forest and bamboo private forest to support bamboo industry at big scale.

In some location suitable for bamboo plantation, bamboo industry therefore will be developed at big scale, such as in :

- NTT : Manggarai District, Flores Island.

- NTB : Sumba Timur District, Sumba Island.

Whereas the other provinces need a survey. If there is a private company interested in investment of this activity, the Government will give facilities through making cooperation with Private Sector/State Owned Enterprises and the communities.

Indonesian rattan export situation for the last twenty five years (period 1968-1992), the highest export volume was 199,144 tons reached in the year 1987 with the value of US$ 192.598 million.

Since October 1986 Government imposed export ban policy for washed and sulphured cane. Further in the early 1987 all exports of rattan products has been permitted in semiprocessed and finished cane products only. Such action brougt significant impacts on export values and value-added of rattan furniture manufactures and handicraft makers in Indonesia.

About more than 150.000 people are estimated to be involved in the rattan industry and trade. Out of this number, about 16.608 are said to be involved in the rattan handicraft business in 1986 (Bank Indonesia and Agency for R & D Ministry of Trade, 1989). On the whole, there is significant contribution to the rural as well as national economics through the rattan industrial developments.

Bamboo is produced in approximately 50,000 ha of forests and in more than 30,600 ha of back yards and farm lands in community forest lands. Bamboo utilization in chopstick industry is also growing very fast in recent investment promotion climate in Indonesia. In 1991, Province of West Java produced 920 million pieces of chopsticks, where 1,178 thousand of bamboo culms were supplied for its raw material.

West Java province抯 bamboo small-scale industrial centre supervised by the Government are growing quite fast. There are 272 Centres Villages of West Java, where 23,520 unit of small producers and processing ventures are producing their variety of products, including baskets, screen and fences, handicrafts, umbrella, etc.

In Rajapola and other Tasikmalaya villages of West Java, up to 40 different products including trays, shutters, plates and saucers, snack holders, angklung (musical instruments), an brief holders are sold as souveniers. Prices ranged from Rp.150 to Rp.10,000 in 1991. The souveniers are sold to tourists, to a cooperative, and at a market. Bamboo weaving for extra income in most villages in West and East Java. In the village of Naga in Tasikmalaya, West Java, for example, a bamboo trunk measuring eight to ten meters in length can be purchased for Rp.500 to Rp.1,000. Rattan pieces are priced at Rp.75 to Rp.100.Mostly the weaving is done at the homes of the villagers during their leisure time, usually in the afternoon and evening

Bamboo are sold also in the form of mixed rattan-based processed products called 揵arang anyaman" (plaited products). Rattan mixed with bamboo to produce, for instance, handicrafts, furnitures, lamp cups, etc.

The study reports produced under the Government of Indonesia抯 Natural Resource Management Project (NRMP) that is assisted by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Each report has the objective of making specific recommendations for future work in the area focus on policy and provide suggestions for appropriate reform.

The NRMP works with the Department of Forestry (Departemen Kehutanan) and the National Planning Agency (Bappenas). The project抯 Policy Secretariat provides advice to the Department of Forestry on policies and management system for natural production forests and protected areas. Most of the advice is related to the outcome of development activities at two pilot project field sites, one in North Sulawesi, centered around the national marine park of Bunaken, the other in West and Central Kalimantan, centered around the national park of Bukit Baka - Bukit Raya and an adjacent concession. In addition, working with the National Planning Agency, advice is provided on Indonesian natural resource issues in general, as they relate to short-and long-term planning.

Part of a study reviews the outcome of an array of policies to raise value-added through development of downstream industry and to ensure resource security. As for the forestry sector as a whole, controversy has surrounded rattan resource management and trade policy, exacerbated by the paucity of reliable aggregate data over time. The purpose of this study is to contribute constructively to policy dialogue on rattan trade and production by providing a policy retrospective in the context of present government development policy culminating not in a set of categorical recommendations but rather a set of policy options for policy-makers.

The present research and development (R & D) of bamboo culm can be classified into three groups namely (1) R&D on basic properties such as physical, mechanical and chemical properties, (2) R&D on quality enhancement, and (3) R&D on processing technology.

Research and development on basic properties is very important for bamboo utilization of each species of bamboo. Some universities and institutes in Indonesia conduct R&D in this field. Among them are Faculty of Forestry-Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Faculty of Forestry of Gajah Mada University, Forest Product and Forestry Socio-Economics Research and Development Centre (FPRC), Research for Human Settlement, and R&D Centre for Applied Physics-Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI).

In the group of R&D on quality enhancement most research are focused on bamboo (culm) preservation. Bamboo preservation are done by Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Faculty of Forestry of Gajah Mada University, Forest Product and Forestry Socio-Economics Research and Development Centre (FPRC), and Environmental Bamboo Foundation Bali. Some traditional method such as soaking vacuum pressure and Boucherie method have been used (Sulthoni 1994, Nandika et al, 1994, Suandika 1994, Sutigno 1994).

R&D on processing technology of bamboo are mostly done by the institutions stated above. Experiment on the use of G. apus, D. asper and D. giganteus for laminated beam and for reinforced concrete materials have been investigated (Surjokusumo and Nugroho 1994) and the results showed that D. asper has a good prospect for multipurpose building materials. In LIPI some products have been developed such as bamboo particleboards, semifiber bamboo boards, plybamboo, bamboo strand board (Subiyakto 1995). Plywood bamboo and a combination of plywood-bamboo have been developed (Sulastiningsih and Sutigno 1992, Kliwon and Iskandar 1994). Experiment on bamboo for construction in earthquake areas is done developing chopstick industry (Dransfield and Widjaja 1995). Bambusa bambos is an introduced taxa (Williams and Rao 1994).

At the present time, research on bamboo utilization in Indonesia has been progressed in some aspects, such as processing technology, preservation, construction as well as basic research. Bamboo utilization may classified into two groups namely utilization of bamboo shoot and bamboo culm.

Among the research on bamboo shoot, a study on effort to preserve bamboo shoot is very important because bamboo shoot is classified as one of the perishable vegetables. Muchtadi (1994) stated that there are some method to preserve and process food that have been applied for vegetables can be used for bamboo shoot, especially to process post harvest comodity that commercially have good prospect. Fresh preservation of bamboo shoot may use low temperature called Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CAS) of Modified Atmosphere Storage (MAS). Combination freezing technique using CAS and MAS can store bamboo shoot for long time. Another technique is canning using high temperature, this system has been used successfully for other products and can be applied for bamboo shoot. Drying is other method to preserve bamboo shoot with the principle of extracting some water from bamboo shoot to make condition that micro-organism can not grow. This technique can be applied by sun dying. Fermentation and irradiation with gamma ray and also be use to preserve bamboo shoot. For fermentation some microorganism are use, whereas irradiation with gamma ray (Cobalt 60) are intended to make enzyme inactive or to prevent microorganism to grow.

Muchtadi (1995) studied bamboo shoot drying technology, effect of pretreatment before drying including effect of anti browning agents were observed. Other experiment is on HCN detoxitation of bamboo shoot (Kencana 1994). Some species have high HCN content that limited the utilization of bamboo shoot. Physical treatment such as heating, cooking, fermenting and submersing the shoots can be applied to detoxination the shoots. Effectivenees of submersing the shoots can be applied to detoxication measure was done, the result showed that after 3 days of submersion, HCN content decreased from 108mg/100g shoot to 36 mg/ 100mg shoot.

Eventhough, explicitly there is no government institution specifically working on bamboo in Indonesia, many institutions/Department are related to the development of bamboo. Those are Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops, Agriculture, Environment, Tourism, Cooperation and others. State Ministry for Environment has a role in coordinating the program and strategic plan of bamboo development. While Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops and Ministry of Agriculture have important role in the operational of bamboo development. Others Minister have roles in supoorting the process and market of bamboo products.

In the field level, at present the institutions which mostly related to the bamboo is Forestry and Soil Conservation services. This district institution was established in 1994, and now has a role in conducting some forestry activities in the operational level, either in forestry area or private land.

Up to now, there is not much information about the non-government organization (NGO) involved in bamboo development. However, some local community organizations have been involved in bamboo development, especially in providing training to the community on processing and working products for bamboo.

Many manufacturer who process bamboo and rattan as their products; however only a few that work to develop bamboo and rattan, especially in establishing plantation. The example of the private company who work on bamboo is exist in Central Java and Lampung, they plant bamboo is about 80 and 1100 ha consequently purposed for fulfilling their needs of their chopstick factory.

The only project exist in developing bamboo as a cooperation with the international agency is in Bali. This project is conducted and funded by the Non Governmental Organization so called Environtment Bamboo Founda-tion (ABF). While, the cooperation project in rattan does not yet exist, it was a plan that the centra for Asian Rattan will be established in South Kalimantan, but up to now that plan is not realized yet.

Up to now, the donor funded project working on bamboo and rattan does not exist yet in Indonesia.

In relation with this, research on cultivation and sustainability of Rotan Manau (diameter 30-40m) has been carried out with financial support from the 3rd Competitive Award System by Puslitbang LIPI Bogor since 1985. The aim of this project is it establish rattan plantation within the less population available within the center of rattan areas. The project was run jointly with interrelated offices from the government, private company and Non-Governmental Organization.

8.1. Rattan has an important value as a source of people income, therefore it should be wisely managed for the people welfare as a whole. Additionally, as a main source of raw material for industry, rattan must be developed and sustained through current advance silviculture technique system in term of utilization of rattan plantation.

8.2. Accurate data and information regarding various aspects of rattan are required to develop a better performance of rattan-based industry. Potential and distribution of existing rattan resources both in natural forest and plantation should be provided. These data will then be used to fundamentally frame the development of rattan plantation and industry. And subsequently wil be used by the policy maker to form the policy and regulation on the basis of a better data qualification.

8.3. Research and Development specially on technique of cultivation must be carried out continually. Silviculture technique such as macro and micro propagation (tissue culture) need to set up properly. Improved harvesting system, uses and marketing of rattan are also important as well as to investigate technologies for plantation.

8.4. Fundamental research on the bamboo resources.

Scientific research on the quantity and quality of bamboo resources and productivity of bamboo stands variously distributed in Indonesia must be important for grasping the circumstances involved bamboo resources.

8.5. Establishment of model management bamboo plantations.

Model management bamboo plantations with the scale of tens hectares would be better to be set up at the centre of each bamboo distribution region for conducting basic scientifical researchers on the establishment of sustainable management methods, land conservation and regreening.

8.6. Rearing of bamboo researchers and specialists.

Rearing of bamboo researchers and specialists would be desirable for promoting bamboo resource development including the exploitation of bamboo resources, bamboo plantation and cultivation, and diffusion of bamboo knowledges.

8.7. Socio-economic research on bamboo and marketing research on bamboo products.

The effectiveness as socio-economics on bamboo cultivation and utilization of bamboo resources must be better to be researched for the development of rural people抯 living including marketing research on bamboo products.

8.8. Stregthening of the opportunity exchanging on bamboo information.

It might be better to strengthen the opportunity exchanging on bamboo information by publishing periodical bamboo research magazine and periodically holding bamboo seminars such as Panel Diskusi Bambu by Ikatan Masyarakat Perbambuan Indonesia (IMPI: Indonesian Bamboo Community).

Appendix 2.

(Listed up from D.Dransfield and E.A.Widjaja: Bamboos. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No.7, Bogor, Indonesia 1995).

Appendix 1

Picked up from 揃amboos" by S. Drnsfield and E.A. Widjaja