Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Faculty of Architecture and Building

Eindhoven University of Technology (TUE)

Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Faculty of Technology Management

Eindhoven University of Technology (TUE)

Eindhoven, The Netherlands

First of all, I want to express my gratitude to God, whose blessings have accompanied me every step of the way in finishing this thesis work. I also want to thank my family for their support, trust and understanding, and to Sybrand Zijlstra, who keeps my spirit high and never fails to be a real friend.

I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr Jules Janssen and Ir Emilia van Egmond, who have guided me through the research process, to Robert Hellier, Denya Cascio, Lode Coen, Lilian Henze, Meghan Ferril and all the tutors, for their guidance and encouragement, and to my sponsor IKEA Foundation.

Thanks are also due to all the design professionals, researchers and institutions who have supported this work: M. Ihsan, my fellow designer and researcher from ITB, Bandung; Mrs. Chairin Joedawinata from Bamboo Java, Bandung; Adolf Babel and family and the Babel Design team in Heilbronn; Prof. A.G. Rao from IIT, Bombay; Bryn Griffiths from RCA, London; Haryanto Aly and Singgih from Aruna Arutala, Temanggung; Mr. Reinder van Tijen in Dieren; Jelle Zijlstra; Charley Younge and Maarten Leijdekkers from Plyboo, Schellinkhout; INBAR; and Linda Garland from EBF, Bali.

Heartfelt thanks to my fellow students and friends from The Design Academy and from The Faculty of Arts and Design in ITB, for their cheerful support, as well as to everyone who was involved in this research project and directly or indirectly inspired and encouraged me to conduct this research.

Finally, I would like to dedicate this research to all the bamboo artisans, particularly in Tasikmalaya, West Java, whose unique, precious skills deserve more respect and attention.

Dwinita Larasati

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2

ABSTRACT 4

1. BAMBOO: AN EXTRAORDINARY GIFT OF NATURE 5

Bamboo as a Plant 5

Bamboo as a Material 6

2. BAMBOO IN THE PAST 7

Indonesian Bamboo Culture 7

The Origins of Bamboo Enterprises 8

3. BAMBOO IN THE PRESENT 10

Perception of Bamboo 10

Involvement of Designers in Bamboo Product Development 15

Opportunity for Bamboo 16

4. BAMBOO FOR THE FUTURE 18

Appropriate Technology 18

The Design Project 23

5. CONCLUSIONS 30

General Conclusions 30

Research Conclusions 30

REFERENCES & FURTHER READING 32

APPENDIX 1. Hope for the Future 34

APPENDIX 2. Comparison of Wood-based and Bamboo-based Cultures 37

APPENDIX 3. Differences between Craftworkers and Designers 38

APPENDIX 4. Questionnaire through the Web: an Evaluation 39

Bamboo grows in abundance throughout Indonesian archipelago, and has been a part of the life of the Indonesian people for centuries. Its rapid growth makes it an almost infinitely sustainable resource. Although bamboo belongs to the grass family, its technical properties resemble wood and therefore, it can replace or supplement wood timber, which is becoming increasingly scarce.

In this research, three distinct factors were studied in order to explore possible approaches to the development of this abundant natural resource. The three factors were:

Exploration of the current situation led to an analysis of factors requiring changes in supply, production and distribution methods, as well as in the design of products and the material use of bamboo.

Taking all the factors together, the hybrid level (combination of elements of traditional processes with elements of advanced treatments, non-traditional processes and the input of designers) of technology was selected as the most appropriate, given the current situation in Indonesia.

Prototypes were then created using a hybrid technology to achieve the following goals:

A modified feasibility study was also conducted, and it was found that hybrid technology is capable of fulfilling the stated requirements in terms of both an improved product and appropriate local benefits.

The documentation concludes with the presentation of a scenario that combines the researcher’s findings and recommendations in the form of a narrative set in contemporary rural Indonesia.

Standing tall and slim, with its leaves whispering in the wind, bamboo has an exotic beauty that goes beyond being a part of pleasant scenery. Bamboo belongs to the Gramineae family; hence, it is actually a grass and not a tree. However, its stem (culm) is "woody" in nature. Bamboo grows and matures within five years. As a comparison, a hardwood such as pine needs more than 10 years to mature, while softwoods such as acacia need 6-7 years. One can almost see it grow, as some bamboo species can grow by about half a meter per day.

Bamboo’s widespread and strong root system binds soil particles to prevent erosion and landslides. Its large total leaf area, along with its roots, absorbs and binds pollutants in the soil, water and air. In this way, bamboo aids the conservation of soil and water, particularly in barren areas and undeveloped lands.

Harvested when newly sprouted and tender, bamboo can be consumed as food. The crisp texture and subtle flavor of bamboo shoots have made them a favored component in many eastern cuisines.

Bamboo can be used for medical purposes as well. The shoot of yellow bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) is known to be a cure for jaundice. It contains the organic compound hydroxy benzaldehyde, which serves as an antitoxin in the liver.

There are innumerable other uses of bamboo: as containers, musical instruments, mats and mattresses, boats, weapons, toys, fishing rods, paper pulp, and many more. It was even used as the first lamp filament in 1880 by Thomas Edison, as he could not find any other material suitable for the purpose.

Indonesian tropical forests consist of various hardwood and softwood tree species, such as teak, meranti, gadog, mahogany and rubber. These have been exploited. Especially since the 1970s, to meet the rapidly growing industrial production and consumer needs for wood, mostly for building materials and various industries (such as pulp and furniture). Today, Indonesia’s tropical forests are approaching a crisis situation in that the current and projected rates of their exploitation exceed the rate of possible replacement. The scarcity of tropical hardwood has been worsened by the forest fires of 1998 in Indonesia. The worst fires were in Kalimantan, between January and April, which damaged almost 400 000 ha of forest. The unsustainability of this resource may well lead to commercial and genetic extinction of several valuable tropical wood species.

It will take several years for a new forest to mature and become harvestable. Hence, the current unsustainable scale of exploitation puts tremendous pressure on natural forests. Furthermore, the forest fires have added to the problem of the scarcity of tropical woods, forcing concerns to be raised the world over about the health of forest resources, with some European countries even banning the import of certain tropical hardwood products from Indonesia to curtail further exploitation. This has forced manufacturers of wood products to seek wood substitutes. Bamboo can meet this demand.

Of the 1 250 bamboo species in the world, 11% are indigenous to Indonesia and five of the 19 most valuable bamboo species—as identified by the International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) based on their economic value—grow in Indonesia. Therefore, it is worthwhile to look at bamboo as an economic resource for the purpose of Indonesian development.

In order to use bamboo as a potential economic resource, it is important to understand bamboo’s superior qualities. Bamboo has an astonishing reputation as a strong construction material, having been used for centuries for structural purposes. Bamboo’s cell structures and technical properties resemble those of wood, yet it is superior in both strength and elasticity when compared with wood and steel.

Bamboo fiber has a static tensile strength of up to 400 N/mm², as against 50 N/mm² of wood, 370 N/mm² of construction steel and 700 N/mm² of glass fiber. The modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) of bamboo have been proven to be equal to those of hardwood. After its first three years of growth, bamboo’s skin contains an abundant proportion of silica that protects the surface from termites, chemical substances and mechanical forces.

The physical and mechanical properties of bamboo, along with its rapid regeneration, make bamboo a potential material to supplement wood. However, because bamboo is widely used by rural people, it carries the image of a poor man’s timber. Bamboo products have been neglected, or have been drowned among a sea of products made of new materials, especially since most of them are perceived as not being "modern" (a term used to describe practicality in processing, packaging and maintenance). In response to this, there have been some attempts to improve the performance and appearance of bamboo products by applying advanced processing technologies.

This research investigates possible methods to improve bamboo products. Through the introduction of well-designed bamboo products that highlight bamboo’s unique characteristics, it is hoped that bamboo can become more appreciated among urban users. Available natural, human and cultural resources are the key elements to consider in the production process; therefore, it is important to discuss how technology can be appropriate for a given environment. The designer’s involvement in the bamboo industry can result in products with modern qualities, which could serve to change people’s perception of bamboo and reduce the stigma currently attached to bamboo materials.

Bamboo has had an immense influence on the life and culture of the Indonesian people for centuries. Bamboo has often figured in local paintings, legends, songs and folklore and it carries many symbolic meanings in its various uses. The following are a few examples (Dransfield and E.A. Widjaja 1995; Richter 1994).

Bamboo’s astounding growth and strength represent a symbol of life and energy; therefore, in many parts of Indonesia, a bamboo knife is used to cut a newborn child’s umbilical cord, thus bringing vitality to the newborn.

In Bali, the yellow variety of Schizostachyum brachycladum is used during burial ceremonies because yellow is considered the sacred color in Hinduism. Dayak songs call upon the spirit in green bamboos to grant vitality to newborns and to young couples. Minangkabau people believe that spirits dwell in the hollows in bamboo and use jointed bamboo as household charms. The walls of the bamboo are associated to those of the home, and it is believed that a thief breaking into the home will be trapped, as if inside the bamboo culm, until the house owner forgives him and releases him from the spell.

Available plant forms and similarities in the material culture of diverse communities in Indonesia have resulted in utilitarian, sometimes even decorative or ritualistic, items that display an obvious likeness. This is particularly evident in the way bamboo containers are decorated and used. However, despite similarities, bamboo baskets and mats throughout Indonesia show astounding variations in form and pattern.

In South Sulawesi, the Toraja use green bamboo culms to carry milk palm wine (tuak) to and from the markets. Decorative containers are ornamented with incisions and pokerwork designs burnt in geometrical patterns and rubbed with red and black pigments. The lime containers of West Timorese are decorated with geometric Bronze Age lozenge patterns found throughout the archipelago in other art and craft forms. North Sumatran Batak containers have finely scratched curvilinear motifs like those painted and carved on the majestic ship-like traditional houses. Bands of triangles representing stylized bamboo shoots and their inherent qualities are a common motif in textiles, woodcarving and metalwork throughout Indonesia. These samples show that bamboo has been used as an inspiration for decorative elements, and as an object to be decorated according to various meanings and functions.

Bamboo musical instruments are in use throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Several kinds of bamboo flutes are played in many parts of the islands. The angklung of West Java is composed of bamboo tubes suspended in a frame; the instrument is rattled to provide musical accompaniment to dances. The watery melodies tinkled on Balinese bamboo xylophones or gerantang serve the same purpose. The sasando, a Rotinese stringed instrument, has 12 to 40 chords strung onto a central bamboo cylinder and a large lontar leaf is curved around it to form a hemispherical sound box.

Hollow bamboo tubes in various sizes and shapes can produce specific sounds. The Indonesian people have been using them for centuries to express their pleasure, gratefulness, grief or joy, both in religious and traditional ceremonies.

Bamboo has also been used to manufacture weapons for hunting and combat. For instance, arrowheads used by the peoples of Irian Jaya were and still are made from small species of Racemobambos and Nastus species, and the arrow shafts from small, straight, thin bamboo culms of Schizostachyum species. Sharpened bamboo poles were used as a primary weapon in wartime, and became especially popular during the fight for independence against the Dutch and Japanese colonization. Because of its association with war and weapons, heroic and nostalgic meanings—as well as images connected to wartime privation—have come to be attached to bamboo.

Among the abundance of interesting Indonesian examples of the uses of bamboo is the inscription of letters and calendars on bamboo for determining auspicious days. Bamboo has also been transformed into pipes, lice crushers and quivers for blowpipe darts, besides its popular uses in the form of kitchen utensils, kite frames and toys.

This tradition of bamboo utilization continues and most of the bamboo artefacts described above are still being made and widely used. The image of being ‘traditional’ is thus firmly attached to bamboo.

As bamboo is still a ubiquitous in Indonesia, it costs almost nothing to purchase the material. Bamboo wares and constructions are easily replaceable and hence are commonly used by low-income communities. Therefore negative images—such as being cheap, disposable and common—are as well attached to bamboo, despite the many layers of valuable traditional meaning.

Indigenous Indonesian peoples who live inland of the coastal regions perform agricultural activities as the primary means to sustain their lives. Rice land is considered their most important possession. Between planting and harvesting times, however, they perform other activities based on religious purposes (such as creating rituals, dances and artefacts) and physical needs (such as mending and making tools).

People naturally find potential resources in their surroundings and utilize them. In the case of West Java those resources are primarily bamboo material (Smyth 1988). Tasikmalaya, a town in West Java, is taken as a case sample because this area has a reputation of producing bamboo artisans. Tasikmalaya is noted for the origin of the bamboo artisans of West Java, whose woven bamboo products and skill in weaving are remarkable. Rajapolah, an area in the outskirts of Tasikmalaya, has a famous marketplace for bamboo products. Bamboo grows in abundance in this part of West Java and hence, the people are very familiar with the material and have utilized it for centuries to fulfill various daily needs. The production of bamboo goods is the most common activity carried out alongside, or even instead of, agricultural activities.

In West Java, as in any other rural area in Indonesia, recent population growth has resulted in a lack of private rice lands to rely on for even subsistence support. People in rural areas, therefore, tend to seek other paying jobs. Producing bamboo ware, commonly carried out as a household activity in villages, is one way to earn a living. Instead of making only a small number of products for their own use, local artisans make additional products to sell in the marketplace. It can be seen here that the producers are not the only users of their products; they produce also for those who will purchase their products. Bamboo craft is no longer a family’s part time activity, but has already reformed a family into a ‘production unit’.

These shifts, from self-use to selling bamboo products in marketplace and from a part-time activity to the main income source for a family, mark the beginning of enterprises. The contemporary changes in traditional bamboo enterprises are discussed below.

Bamboo weaving has always been carried out in home-based units, which employ only family labor. In the language of modern capitalism, these entrepreneurs are all producers themselves, who own the means of production. The head of the family, for example, who is also the head of a production unit, is responsible for providing the capital to purchase raw materials and tools, training the workers and managing the distribution of products. Every member in a family is involved in the production of bamboo.

Within these production units there is no formal division of labor, though generally men do the initial stage of work (cutting, cleaning and sawing of the bamboo), while the women weave and the children help assembling and finishing the products. Everyone collaborate by contributing his/her own part in manufacturing the final product.

Users of traditional bamboo products are mostly the producers themselves, or they come from neighbouring areas where they purchase or exchange their products in the local marketplace and are therefore familiar with the functions of the products.

In the traditional system, where the maker and the user are the same person or group of people, bamboo products have never been required to meet quality standards. The raw bamboo is preserved in the traditional manner, through immersion in water and mud. The material that results is durable enough for the purposes it is intended to serve. Traditional bamboo products are easily repaired or immediately replaced when broken or worn, since the users themselves are familiar with the production process and the material cab be easily acquired.

Traditional craftworkers create additional products for the purpose of celebrating social or religious events or ceremonies. Therefore, they happily put their spirit and energy into making the products, as it is considered an honor to be involved in the events. This "spiritual" connection between the craftworkers and their work produce excellent results.

The basic bamboo craft skills are taught from one generation to another, among relatives and close neighbours. Special knowledge and skills are also taught by the skilled to others in the community. The most experienced craftworkers in the family teach their skills to others through an apprenticeship method. Kinship relations have therefore remained important in crafts teaching.

Bamboos grow naturally, in great abundance, in backyards or fields and can be acquired easily. The available raw material is more than enough to fulfill the local people’s daily needs.

In the traditional system, the head of the family is responsible for the marketing of the products that the family makes. Products that are ready for sale are gathered and brought to the local marketplace, where various families have their set space.

Traditional bamboo ware has to be brought to the local marketplace, using means of transport such as rickshaws and carts that are quite sufficient to fulfill this need.

Designers do not make any contribution to the development of bamboo products, as traditional products are used for their original purposes and their designs have been passed from one generation to the next for centuries. These traditional products include a wide variety of kitchen equipment, fish traps, mats for huts’ walls, and many other articles of daily use. Communities in rural areas still use traditional methods to produce bamboo goods.

Much of these have, however, changed and the current situation is different from the past. Responding to the changes, bamboo product manufacturing has become more complex. Traditional enterprises are now forced to adjust to the changes in order to survive in the contemporary world. The present situation and its influence on the bamboo industry are reviewed in the following chapter.

The advantage of having been an integral part of the Indonesian culture for centuries does not ensure that bamboo products will always be the people’s first choice. Factors in the bamboo industry have changed over time, and several of these have influenced the perception of bamboo as a subordinate material: unreliable production and distribution; low quality of existing bamboo products (a combination of material and workmanship); outdated designs of existing bamboo products; the low economic value of bamboo materials; and bamboo’s inability to compete with other materials.

Over time, changes have occurred in the production process of bamboo products. Individual households have changed in size and composition as a consequence of the shifting patterns of birth, death, marriage and divorce, as well as demographic movements from rural areas to urban areas and vice-versa. These alterations confirm the view that the household is not a static entity, but a unit that responds to periodic reorganizations and to unexpected, irregular events.

These changes in the family have influenced the production units: they are now larger, though they are still household-based. Within years of its development, a production unit can change its composition from being a unit of only of two parents and their children: grown up children can form their own enterprises with other relatives; or it can also be that the women of an extended family form their own production unit, based on their responsibility to support themselves and their children in the case that they are widowed or divorced. The nature of individual production units and the (family-based) relations dominant within them have not altered; the composition within production units, however, has changed.

A change has occurred also in user groups. Bamboo goods of today are sold to markets outside the production villages, which then create wider ranges of users with new and different demands. These external users, who live in urban areas, have a different life style than the rural producers. Therefore, the products must be modified to meet the needs of these new users. For example, a woven rice steamer will not be used to cook rice in an urban setting, since the urban users prefer electric rice cookers. The urban user may want to use the rice steamer as a pencil case instead, therefore requiring a smaller product of the same form with denser weaving.

The durability of the material is one of the most important aspects that determine the performance quality of bamboo products. The physical quality of bamboo products depends also on the workmanship.

Once split and made into products, bamboo can lose some of its durability. The surface of bamboo, which was protected by its hard skin, becomes exposed, therefore making it easier for termites and fungus to attack and damage the material. Traditional preservation methods prevent some of the damage. However, new and improved treatment methods that increase bamboo’s durability will make it more competitive in the contemporary market.

In addition, the external users sometimes modify the use of the bamboo products to suit their needs, which are different from the products’ intended function. Usually, they buy a bamboo product for its decorative qualities, though they expect the product to be as durable as those made with more modern materials. If premature breakage takes place, they have no direct access to the producers who can easily repair or replace the product. Therefore, it is necessary for bamboo products directed at external users to be more durable than those made for user-producers.

Another problem is caused if the product is exported to places, where the climate can be very different. Such climate changes can cause the bamboo to crack or split. For example, a bamboo chair that was made of tropical bamboo contains a high percentage of moisture. In a very dry climate, the material will lose the moisture content and dry rapidly, causing it to shrink and split. Therefore, specific preservation and processing methods need to be applied to bamboo products for export in order to anticipate and prevent these problems.

The skills of bamboo artisans are taught from one generation to another through family and relatives, but this method of teaching is not producing enough highly skilled artisans to meet the increasing levels of product demand. The shortage of skilled artisans limits productivity, which will be a problem if more products are required.

The shortage of skilled artisans is caused in part by a demographic shift of young people, the potential human resource, from production villages to urban centers. A major factor in this continued emigration towards urban areas is the lack of paying work in villages. If bamboo proves to be able to provide viable employment, it can be assumed that more young people would stay in their villages to do the work. These potential artisans will also become motivated to improve their skills if they are paid well for their work.

A training program that acknowledges product quality, to supplement the traditional handing down of the skills, might be a solution to help local youth develop their competence in this area.

Adequate availability of raw material is the starting point of production. The production of specific bamboo products requires specific bamboos. For example, the best bamboo for basketry is a species with straight long fibres such as Gigantochloa apus (some bamboo species have twisted fibres).

An increased demand for bamboo products requires guaranteed raw material supply. In some cases, artisans are experiencing a local shortage of bamboo because the material is being used by large factories to produce skewers, toothpicks and chopsticks on industrial scale. In some cases, bamboo plants are being cut down by landowners and replaced by other crops considered more economically profitable, contributing further to the shortage of bamboo. Materials are sometimes in such short supply that artisans have to fight for their share, or worse, to steal from one another.

There is thus a clear need for well-managed bamboo plantations, especially for the much-used species, in order to secure an abundant supply for mass production. Besides the cultivation of commercial varieties of bamboo, the preservation of the biodiversity of bamboo species must be considered as well.

Without proper cultivation, the supply of bamboo as an industrial material cannot be insured, which can cause irregular production. Undependable production is one of the current problems in the bamboo product industry.

The emergence of external users, a recent occurrence in the bamboo industry, has caused bamboo products to be divided into groups according to their markets. The artisans make their products in the usual way, but these are then graded by a distributor (an intermediary, or bandar). A bandar is also the one who orders a specific number of a certain design to be completed by a given date, since the artisans rarely produce different goods on their own initiative.

The bandars are from outside the local community and come only once in a while to the production village for business purposes. They do not control the manufacturing of the products, and are concerned only with selling the results. As they usually live in neighbouring urban areas, they have access to the external users and some familiarity with their demands.

The bandar who approaches the producers first chooses the products based on their neat, strong weaving and joints, as well as clean appearance. Obviously, this aspect of the quality depends on the skills of the craftworkers. Once the best products have been given to the first bandar, the rest will be offered to the second bandar for secondary markets, and so on.

The first Bandar, who gets the opportunity to pick the best of the products, sells the products to the first class markets in Indonesia. These products sell for a high price compared with products sold in secondary and tertiary markets. The first class markets sell the products for decorative purposes or as gift items, and the products are usually displayed attractively in the arts and crafts sections of high-end department stores. Most bamboo products sold in such markets are not used to fulfill their original functions. For example, a woven fish trap may end up on a dining table as a fruit bowl instead of being used to catch fish. Because the products are displayed in arts and crafts departments and serve an impromptu rather than intended function, many people consider bamboo products as ethnic handicrafts or souvenir items.

The second bandar sells the product to secondary department stores or supermarkets, where the products are treated similarly, though usually with less fancy displays. The bamboo products in this market also get sold, again to external users, as ethnic handicrafts or souvenirs.

The third bandar sells the products to the tertiary market, which is the local marketplace where the people look for things they really need and will use them for their intended purpose. These products are inexpensive, with the retail price very close to the actual production cost.

In the export markets such as Europe, some bamboo products get displayed in kitchenware shelves or as unique gift items in speciality shops (such as Asian stores). European people are not familiar with the day-to-day use of bamboo; therefore, bamboo products appeal to them as "oriental", "eastern" and "alternative" materials.

Until the designs of the products intended for external users more closely match those users’ needs, bamboo products will continue to be seen only as handicrafts and the perception of bamboo as a "traditional" item will remain.

Currently, the demand for bamboo products in places away from the production centers is far greater than in local marketplace and neighboring villages and towns. The quantities demanded are also quite high, necessitating a more complex arrangement of transport facilities. Trucks have to be rented for the purpose and a smooth distribution ensured. Currently, the craftworkers themselves take care of this. As most of them do not have the knowledge and/or resources to make such arrangements efficiently, timely delivery and distribution of products often suffer, reinforcing the impression that the bamboo business is unprofessional and undependable.

Recently, the government provided a solution to benefit bamboo producers who do not have the expertise to manage their own business. An organization called Koperasi Unit Desa (KUD) has been created under the Ministry of Cooperation, Middle and Small Scale Industry to assist small-scale industries with capital funds. KUD offices are established in villages, to ensure that the local people can access them easily. KUD provides low-interest loans to the producers, and arranges communal transportation to be used by the producers for delivery to faraway places. However, this system is not working efficiently since KUD, a government organization, is unreliable.

Professional designers have not been involved in the development of traditional bamboo products, since the designs of such products are traditional. To attract external users, these products are sometimes modified by the artisans themselves, according to their taste by referring to pictures in magazines or to other products that they have seen in large department stores. External users sometimes request a particular modification by asking the bandar, who then tells the craftworkers to modify the products in a particular way.

The artisans, who live in rural areas, are not familiar with the life styles of the external users. The result is often a bamboo product with a design unrelated to its intended use, and this product must then compete with other more functional products made of other materials. Therefore, involvement of designers, who are familiar with the needs of external users, is necessary in order to create well-conceived and competitive bamboo products.

This brings up the question of why designers have not been looking at bamboo in the first place. This question is especially valid for Indonesian designers who come from a bamboo-rich culture (this issue will be discussed later in this chapter).

Bamboo grows naturally throughout Indonesia. The price of each pole depends on the species, but most varieties are quite inexpensive at approximately 3 000 rupiah per pole. As each pole can be used to make tens of baskets, the cost of the material is very low. The production tools (saw, knife and scissors) are household possessions of daily use, and therefore bamboo ware production does not need large capital investments in production tools or facilities.

Bamboo artisans are generally situated in rural areas. The local marketplace is where they sell traditional bamboo products, which are originally directed to the local and least expensive end of the market, and are therefore priced accordingly.

The low production cost is an advantage to the developing bamboo industry. However, the fact that bamboo products are aimed at the least expensive end of the market and priced just a little over the actual production cost not only keeps the income of the producers extremely low, but also perpetuates bamboo’s image as a "poor man’s material".

In this era, anything can be imported, and that includes knowledge and technology. Various materials and manufacturing techniques are currently being introduced into developing countries. Plastics, for example, are increasingly popular as a material for household products. Large investments have been made in plastic factories and plastic production is enormous, making the products very affordable. Plastic has some practical advantages: it has a smooth surface, providing for easy maintenance and a clean image; it can be mass-produced uniformly and precisely, and therefore the products can be easily packed and transported; and even inexpensive plastic can be produced in a variety of bright colours, making it attractive. These qualities are factors of ‘modern’ product quality.

The situation is different for bamboo products. Woven bamboo products are not uniform in shape or size. Existing bamboo products have a limited appearance, never far from their traditional woven form. In addition, their performance is also limited to simple household products or rough building components. Bamboo is not used as a primary component in products that need high precision in manufacturing, such as cars, computers and appliances. For these reasons, bamboo retains an image as a "natural", "ethnic" and "traditional" material.

It can be concluded that the usage of bamboo is discouraged by the following factors:

Added to the very low price of bamboo products, these factors create an image of bamboo as "traditional", "ethnic", "handicraft" and a "poor man’s material".

People’s perception of bamboo is based on their experience in dealing with the material—that is, with the currently available products and manufacturing systems. As long as there is no major change in that experience, the stigma on bamboo will sustain.

There are several reasons for the disinterest of Indonesian designers in exploring bamboo. In the first place, this lack of interest can be traced to the way designers are educated. Formal design training originated in western countries, so the materials used to teach and practice are materials that are used in the western world; obviously, bamboo is not one of them. Because design education is based in western cultures, examples of products also come from that part of the world. This has caused Indonesian designers to desist from working with bamboo as a material or using it in product applications.

A second factor is the way professional designers work: relying on available data as to a material’s properties, and there is lack of data dissemination on bamboo as a production material. Without such data, it is not easy for designers to work with a material in a proper way. In addition, most designers have been brought up in urban areas and have had little direct daily contact with bamboo.

A third factor is the physical shape of bamboo, which appears to limit its potential forms. Bamboo as a raw material is cylindrical and hollow. A bamboo pole is also conical, with a circumference that reduces gradually from the bottom to the top. Unlike other materials—such as wood, plastic and clay—bamboo in its natural state does not readily lend itself to a variety of forms.

These three factors have discouraged Indonesian designers from exploring the potential of bamboo. However, in the recent past, other factors have emerged which are leading more designers to turn their attention to bamboo as a material.

After tens of years of formal design education oriented to western culture (the Industrial Design Department was established at the Institute of Technology in Bandung in 1972), Indonesian designers are becoming inclined to explore new avenues based on their own cultural resources. They are beginning to look at their own roots and find their own identity by exploring indigenous resources. Many designers are currently experimenting with materials that have been known and used for centuries in Indonesia, such as rattan and clay, and bamboo fits this trend.

A second influence is the logical extension of the design belief that each material has its own advantages and disadvantages and can provide optimal performance through proper application. Viewed from this angle, bamboo is a fascinating material. With little available data on bamboo’s physical characteristics, and not much more direct experience, proper design and treatment for bamboo can be discovered only through experimentation. The results are expected to prove that bamboo is a very competent and rewarding material.

Yet another factor is the current emphasis on environmentally responsible design. When the issue of the scarcity of tropical hardwoods emerged, designers became motivated to find alternative materials as a supplement to hardwoods. By using bamboo as a supplement (especially valuable for its rapid growth), it is hoped that the tropical forest, a limited natural resource, will be conserved.

Looked at from the standpoint of appropriate technology, there is an enormous opportunity for contemporary designers in developing bamboo as a material. Designers can act as a bridge between rural bamboo producers and urban consumers. With the involvement of design knowledge in bamboo product development resulting in the introduction of improved bamboo products, it can be assumed that demand for bamboo products will increase. Increased demand will create increased production, which will lead to increased employment and contribute to rural development. The resources—raw material, tools and potential workers—are all available locally.

Contributions from advanced technology can improve the performance of bamboo through, for example, preservation techniques, which are still being developed to increase the durability of the material. The preservation of green bamboo has to be performed soon after harvest, as the vessels in the bamboo wall tend to close within 24 hours of the bamboo being cut and prevent the penetration of the preservative. The outer skin of bamboo protects the inner parts. Once the skin is wounded or split, pests that feed on bamboo sap can invade the pole. Some pests can turn the bamboo into powder from the inside within a short period, while some others can create tunnels in the bamboo wall, thereby weakening the physical structure of the bamboo. Preservation techniques for bamboo seek to eliminate any possibility of invasion by pests, including borers, termites and fungi.

Traditional bamboo preservation involves the immersion of bamboo poles in mud and water for approximately one month. Another method is to arrange freshly cut bamboo poles upside down and set oil (diesel fuel) on top of the open stalks for about one week to push out the bamboo sap. In chemical preservation processes, the poles are steeped or immersed in various chemical substances to displace the sap with the chemical.

A widely used chemical preservation process is the "Boucherie method", invented in 1839 by a French medical doctor of the same name. The process, which has been applied to bamboo since 1947, involves the use of gravity to push out the sap and push in the preservative. It takes approximately two weeks to complete the process. The Boucherie process has seen later modified by the addition of a pump (hand- or motor-driven) to replace to inject chemicals under pressure. A dip-diffusion method is applied for split bamboo, wherein the material is immersed in the preservative substance and covered with a plastic sheet to let the substance diffuse.

Preservative treatments of bamboo have some restrictions. For example, the Boucherie method works effectively only under certain conditions. The preservation site has to be located close to the bamboo plantation area for the process to be practical, since freshly cut bamboo poles must be treated as early as possible. The site requirement is also large, as the space should be adequate to accommodate the harvested bamboo, the Boucherie equipment and the treated bamboo poles that need drying. The method requires qualified workers to supervise the equipment and control the proportions of the chemical substances. Therefore, though it is the most effective preservation process, the modified Boucherie method requires significant outlay in terms of capital, human and material resources, and a well-coordinated management of these resources.

Some bamboo industries in West Java have the practice of immersing raw bamboo in a chemical substance to whiten it and achieve a ‘clean’ and smooth appearance. However, the chemicals used in this treatment make the material less elastic and therefore, more difficult to work with. Many producers also use paint and lacquer to finish their products in order to make the products more attractive.

Techniques designed to improve bamboo’s performance as an industrial material have resulted in various kinds of bamboo boards. Traditionally, bamboo can be made into sheets by weaving thin bamboo strips manually into mats, which then can serve as parts of huts such as walls, ceiling and flooring. No adhesive is used in the weaving process. The first modern attempt to make bamboo into thick firm sheets, which can serve as boards, was made in China during the Second World War. In principle, the technique calls for bamboo materials in flat form (tied splits or woven mats), which are converted into boards by applying an adhesive and pressing under a predetermined temperature and pressure. Several layers of the flat bamboo material can be pressed together to make boards of different thickness. The adhesive substance impregnates the bamboo thoroughly and the result is a strong board. While some of these advanced techniques have been perfected in China and elsewhere (such as in India), some others are still under development.

The Indonesian Science Institute (LIPI) has also been experimenting with producing bamboo boards. The adhesive employed is the resin, phenol formaldehyde (PF), which can be toxic under certain conditions. PF also changes the appearance of natural bamboo by making it reddish and giving it a characteristic smell. There are other substances that can be used, which are more natural and environment-friendly, but they must be imported and are therefore expensive. The PF-treated bamboo board is still being tested for its resistance to fungi and termites, as well as to fire and weather conditions, and its other physical and mechanical properties are being studied.

Only preliminary results were available at the time of this study. Although these are promising, there have been no other official test results on bamboo board’s endurance against weather, fire and chemical substances. Bamboo board is commonly used only for indoor construction, therefore the many other obvious possibilities, such as cabinetry and furniture applications, need to be explored.

The advanced treatments have generally been developed by scientists and engineers through research in material sciences. The improved bamboo materials that have resulted have demonstrated performance and appearance that are comparable to timber, in some cases even to metal, for interior elements and construction purposes. It has become clear that there are numerous potential product applications for bamboo boards, and even more far ranging possibilities if the same techniques were used to press the layered splits into other shapes.

This is where designers can contribute their knowledge. Industrial design is one of the professions, or knowledge fields, that can be expected to uncover the potential for more creative applications. People in urban areas, who responded to the questionnaire concerning attitudes toward bamboo products, welcomed the idea of improved bamboo products and expected that an exploration of bamboo would lead to new high quality products.

Design professionals can be expected to come up with creative, intelligent and appropriate uses of the material. With modern applications that can expose its superior qualities, bamboo material will be able to perform efficiently and prove itself as a competent and exciting material.

After having discussed bamboo’s potential and the wider possibilities for the treatment of bamboo, it is important to consider a suitable production process for the given economic, physical and cultural conditions and environment. A suitable production process is known as "appropriate technology", and some specific aspects can be used as the basis for analysing the appropriateness of a technology in protecting the human and natural environment in which the production takes place.

Before discussing appropriate technology further, let us take a look at the traditional formulation of technology. Technology is the relationship between a product and a process. Product has certain physical features as follows:

Then there are other features related to a product:

The physical product features are product requirements, which are determined by the strategies of the producers as well as by the market, either local or international. The product requirements are used as a constraint for design concepts. To meet these requirements, a suitable process must be employed in the manufacture of the product.

The process can be divided into:

The model below (Fig. 1) attempts to incorporate design and technology practice (Budgett-Meakin 1992). It shows that there is a restricted meaning of technology, which applies only to the technical aspects of the production processes; and a more general meaning of technology, which integrates cultural, organizational and technical aspects as well.

Fig. 1: Design and technology practice

A designer, who is involved in developing a bamboo product, can propose a particular production process. It is, however, important to ensure that the process is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable. A sustainable process can be achieved by applying a suitable method in a specific circumstance. The nine aspects that define appropriate technology, as shown in Fig. 2, can be used to determine the most suitable method in a given circumstance.

Fig. 2: Definitions of appropriate technology

From this diagram, it can be seen that appropriate technology analysis includes the following aspects.

Application of appropriate technology should improve the economic condition of the community.

Environmental aspects

Application of appropriate technology should consider the sustainability of natural resources.

Environmental aspects: The activity of producing bamboo products does not disturb the balance of the natural environment, since the primary natural resource used is bamboo, which regenerates rapidly, and all other sources of energy are fully renewable. In addition, the traditional process does no harm to the ecosystem, as all by-products (waste) associated with it are non-toxic.

Social/cultural aspects: The activity, as a part of a longstanding tradition, fits in with the local social and cultural environments. The indigenous users of traditional bamboo products have confidence in performing this activity, and they are able to control all the resources (natural, human and cultural) involved in the production process. This self-confidence results in self-respect and self-reliance.

The activity is fully adapted to the local social structure and traditions, since producing traditional bamboo ware for own use is a part-time activity performed in between harvesting times. Moreover, bamboo products are used in religious and traditional ceremonies and hence, producing them is considered an honor.

Economic aspects: The activity capitalizes on local skills in bamboo weaving, which the artisans inherit from their ancestors, and utilizes local material (bamboo) that grows close to the community.

The community controls all activities involved in bamboo product’s utilization, from obtaining or purchasing the raw materials and making the products, to using, maintaining and disposing of them.

However, the traditional bamboo industry does not provide for or substantially increase the income of the local artisans. Therefore, it is appropriate only as a secondary activity where the primary income is earned in another way, for example, through rice farming. Also, traditional bamboo production has been stable for centuries. It fulfills limited and static needs within the community itself. It would be hard to argue that traditional bamboo enterprise is part of a real development, or that it positively effects future development.

Looking at the analysis of these aspects, the traditional method is, for the most part, already an appropriate technology for the community, especially in the social and environmental factors. But there are aspects of appropriate technology, specifically in the economic area, which are not being fulfilled by the traditional bamboo industry even in the current situation.

As soon as the making and selling of bamboo ware becomes the primary source of income, the traditional method fails to provide a stable, sufficient and reliable income for the artisan. In addition, once the need for bamboo products is freed from the finite needs of the immediate community, the idea of real development comes into play. Hence, to create an appropriate technology that can increase income generation, several conditions in the traditional bamboo industry have to be considered.

The factors involved in production activity (supply of raw material, distribution and marketing of bamboo products) will become more complicated and dependent on more complex resources. The producers must be able to meet established schedules to facilitate distribution, and processes must be adjusted to produce larger volumes.

Outside markets must be taken into consideration and the product requirements determined by those markets. The market, and the external users for whom the products are intended, will have different requirements of bamboo products. Specifically, they will require modern quality (practicality in maintenance, manufacturing, packaging and distribution, maintaining and disposing). Traditional bamboo products—an outcome of traditional processes—do not have these qualities. Thus, there is a gap between the currently employed processes and the current product requirements.

In addition, environmental factors must be considered in the demand for greater amounts of raw material. Bamboo ware for industrial production requires a steady and reliable supply of raw material. This calls for systematic and sustainable development of bamboo as a material.

If these conditions are met within a technology that is owned by the community, adapted to the socio-cultural environment, capitalizes on local skills and materials, and does not deplete non-renewable resources or harm the ecosystem, then the new needs will have been met with an appropriate technology.

It is important to review the levels of bamboo industry in Indonesia, in order to determine the application of a technology that is appropriate for economic, socio-cultural and environmental development.

The table below places various types of current Indonesian bamboo production aspects into their technology levels.

Item Traditional Advanced

Production material Raw bamboo: culm, rod, Raw bamboo: split, woven mat

splits, strips, etc.

Preservation method Immersing in mud Injecting preservative substances

Processing Manual weaving technique Forming bamboo boards, molding/

molded composites

Tools Simple household tools Advanced and specialized

(knife, scissors, etc.) machinery

Other materials and substances None Adhesive, additional product

elements

Product assembling Manual weaving technique High-pressure molding, followed

by conventional manufacture

assembling

Finishing Natural Polishing, laminating

Product groups Kitchenware and household Boards for interior building

products, traditional housing components

construction elements

Design Traditional Improved products: new design

Users Local community External users: not involved

directly in the production process,

export market

Enterprise type Household-based, Mass production

Labor-intensive

As the table above shows, the current split between traditional and advanced technologies is very broad. Traditional methods cannot fulfill the current requirements, while advanced methods are not affordable by the community.

Hybrid technologies fall between traditional and advanced, or combine elements of each to create new solutions. In a hybrid technology, human resources would be considered more important than advanced machinery, but the process applied could be something other than traditional weaving techniques. A hybrid method would look into possibilities for new treatment and preservation options, but focus on basic production options adaptable to the existing culture.

As the table below shows, many possible solutions fall within the category of hybrid technologies. However, all solutions share a focus on labor-intensive, modified, household enterprises, all involve the contribution of a designer to create improved products, and all direct the end product target an external user.

Item Modified traditional Combination of Adaptive advanced

method traditional & advanced method

methods

Production material Raw bamboo: culm, Raw bamboo: culm, rod, Pre-treated bamboo:

rod, split, strips, etc. split, strips, etc., and boards, composites,

pre-treated bamboo: etc.

boards, composites, etc.

Preservation Traditional method Traditional method, and injecting preservatives

Processing Manual technique, with machinery support Manual processing of

pre-treated production

material

Tools Simple household tools, Specialized tools, additional small machinery

additional small

machinery

Other materials Adhesives, additional product elements

and substances

Product assembly Weaving technique, conventional manufacture Conventional

assembly, adapted manual techniques manufacture assembly

Finishing Various: natural, polishing, coloring, laminating, etc.

Product groups Kitchenware, tableware, furniture, accessories, etc.

Design Modified traditional products, new and improved design

Users External users

Enterprise Labor-intensive, improved household enterprise, with cooperative organization

of producers that are protected by the government’s policies.

There are three types of solutions possible within the hybrid model. The first is to modify existing bamboo products (as Bamboo Java is doing today), using traditional methods, possibly with the support of small machinery such as sanding machines. The goal is to produce improved designs for which there will be more demand, and which can be produced in greater volume, resulting in higher income for the producer. The drawback is that traditional weaving methods will never have modern quality, and will retain a traditional craft look.

The second type of solution uses manual processes other than traditional weaving and, in some cases, advanced preservation methods, to create improved bamboo products that have a non-traditional look and/or modern quality. This is the most promising area in that:

The third category includes using pre-treated bamboo as the production material. Instead of raw bamboo splits, rods or strips, boards or composites (advanced treatment) are used as the basic production material. This would be possible if a developing economic situation allowed the community to upgrade the preservation or treatment level to advanced. Local human resources with skills, such as carpentry and cabinet making, could then process the materials further.

The relationship between the treatment levels of bamboo products is illustrated in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3: Treatment levels of bamboo and their relationship

One example of an existing company that applies the hybrid process is Bamboo Java, which is situated in Bandung, West Java. Bandung is the nearest urban city to Tasikmalaya, an area known for its skilful bamboo artisans. This company is owned by a couple of designers, who employ craftworkers from Tasikmalaya. The owners act as intermediaries, design the products and directly supervise the quality. Bamboo Java has cultivated a local market (such as Chedi, a five-star hotel with a ‘natural’ theme in Bandung) as well as international clients such as Hackman in Finland and Harrods in London.

The designs of Bamboo Java products, which are mostly woven containers and tableware, are modifications of traditional bamboo products (Fig. 4). Their workers have somewhat superior skills in comparison with traditional bamboo craftworkers, especially in their recognition of consistent quality.

Fig. 4: A woven container, modified bamboo ware

Bamboo Java has created a unique production system in complete harmony with the Tasikmalaya community. The artisans of Bamboo Java work in their home villages within their traditional family groups. Each group has a leader who brings the products periodically to Bandung, where they can be checked for quality and the final products accepted.

The artisans use the traditional harvesting, treatment, preservation and production processes. However, the designs have been improved to conform to the demands of urban users. The artisans have been trained to create new forms with more consistent quality, and some additional materials are used for accent, coloring and finishing.

In the current situation in Indonesia, hybrid processes offer the greatest opportunities for real economic development within the parameters of ‘appropriate technology’. Such a technology must continue to fulfill the economic, social and environmental constraints as traditional methods have done in the past. Hybrid technologies can meet these requirements, utilizing the skills of a designer and non-traditional manual processing methods to design and produce products suitable for an external market that will, at the same time, materially benefit and develop the local culture without damaging the ecosystem.

Such locally based bamboo enterprises can be established in any area where bamboo grows in abundance, as long as support for material supply, production and distribution activities can be developed in the community that surrounds it. Bamboo can thus become an important part of the future of this society.

Prototypes were created as a validation of the research concept. With the objectives of the research as the starting point, the product requirements were set and relevant design aspects analysed.

The requirements were that the product must:

In the following table, bamboo products are sorted based on international market demands.

BUILDING COMPONENTS Floorings, ceilings, roofs, staircases, windows and door

frames, window and door panels, etc.

FURNITURES AND ACCESSORIES

(not directly related to building construction)

- Outdoor Mail boxes, garbage bins, bus stops, telephone booths,

kiosks, vending carts, play ground facilities, park

benches and shelters, garden houses, street signs,

lighting fixtures, flag poles, fences and gates, etc.

- Indoor Cupboards, cabinets, shelves, beds, seats, tables, lighting

fixtures, trash bins, room dividers, sunshades, etc.

OTHER PRODUCTS Dining ware, kitchenware, tableware, toys, musical

instruments, jewellery, containers, souvenirs, etc.

It is worth noting here that many products in the preceding table could have fulfilled the requirements of the project. Time, quantity of material, access to appropriate machinery and personal preference all influenced the choice of specific product.

There were some restrictions in the realization of the prototype:

Once this choice had been made, product requirements could be made more specific.

The design aspects were analysed as follows.

The production material is raw bamboo in the form of splits and sheets. Other materials required were adhesives and materials already common in the airline industry (aluminium, plastics) as components for joints.

As in-flight cutlery items, including fork, knife and spoons (Fig. 5). In addition, packaging was considered. Both utensils and packaging must be compact in order to be practical for shipping and storing on airplanes.

Fig. 5: Bamboo cutlery for in-flight service

Ergonomic aspects

The products have to suit the needs of the users and be comfortable to use.

Application of a hybrid process, wherein human labor and simple tools are used in a non-traditional manner.

Aesthetic aspects

Natural and honest appearance, simple and elegant. The products bear ‘modern’ characteristics and do not appear ‘traditional’. The identity of the airline can be established by integrating the airline’s logo to the shape of the products or by adding graphic elements.

For the manufacturer, the production cost has to be affordable and the profit from production must increase the income of the producing community. For the users, maintenance of the products has to be practical (durable, washable cutlery).

The use of a rapidly regenerating, easily replaceable, natural resource (bamboo) will supplement and conserve more limited ones (wood). The waste products of the production process are not harmful to the environment since they consist of degradable natural substances. In addition, bamboo cutlery, lighter than the metal cutlery, can reduce the energy (fuel) used per flight.

The hybrid process selected for production makes use of the traditional family-based production unit, and is thus fully adapted to the local (Indonesian) socio-cultural environment. In addition, it is hoped that an improved bamboo product with ‘modern’ quality will reduce the current stigma attached to bamboo as a production material (in both manufacturing and end-use sectors).

In making the prototypes, the production process was based on the concept that the products would be manufactured by rural craftworkers. Therefore, only simple and common woodworking tools and materials—such as handsaw, knife, chisels and sandpaper—that can be easily acquired were used. Materials include bamboo (as the main material), as well as glue and small pieces of metal and wood used as adhesive, simple jigs and elements for joints.

It should be noted that the process of making prototypes is an unconventional approach in traditional bamboo industries, where craftworkers modify the products at the site. In contrast to traditional production methods, preliminary sketches for the design were made and through evaluation these sketches evolved into the final design. The proportions and dimensions of the products were evaluated, as were the steps in production process, the capacity of workers and the tools and materials used. Technical drawings were then provided to specify the exact size and shape of the products, to achieve uniformity. The prototypes were then produced based on the drawings.

Ihsan, a designer and partner in developing the design for the prototypes, conducted the opportunity segment of a feasibility study in cooperation with Bamboo Java. Bamboo Java is a company in West Java that has been producing bamboo products for the export market and employing local human and natural resources to manufacture their products. This company was an appropriate place to do a feasibility study for production, since the workers were skilled bamboo artisans familiar with high quality requirements. The designer’s experimental prototypes were shown to the artisans, and they were asked to produce products of equal or better quality.

Owing to the limited time, only the prototypes of one fork, one knife and one spoon were studied for feasibility. Other items, including packaging that is part of the final concept, were not studied. The feasibility study for production included:

A designer, an intermediary and a craftworker was involved. The designer met with the intermediary, bringing the design in the form of prototypes and drawings. The intermediary then instructed the craftworker to duplicate the prototypes.

The raw material—bamboo poles approximately 5 m long—cost 3 000 to 3 500 rupiah. The salary of an artisan was 10 000 rupiah per day.

One bamboo pole (10 cm diameter and 5 m long) can be made into approximately 200 pieces of cutlery.

The artisan used one golok knife (multi-functional traditional knife) and one small carving knife. (Other tools needed were chisels and a small handsaw to form the products, and sandpaper to finish them. Bamboo Java was not able to provide these tools for the test, so the products were made exclusively with the two knives and left unfinished).

As soon as bamboo poles were cut, they were preserved in the traditional method (immersing in mud and drying naturally). Production was in four phases. The preserved bamboo pole was cut to the desired length, then split lengthwise to the desired width. These small bamboo pieces were then shaped to the pre-determined forms using the two knives. Sanding to smooth the surface would have been the final phase of production.

One artisan was able to make one set of cutlery (one fork, one knife and one spoon) within one hour. It would have taken less time if the process was done per phase with four artisans, where each worker was assigned a specific part in the production process (cutting and splitting bamboo poles, rough shaping, final shaping or sanding).

Bamboo Java’s artisans manufacture the products in their home villages in Tasikmalaya, West Java. One of these local artisans was used for the feasibility study. The artisan who duplicated the prototypes had only two kinds of knives to work with. However, the forms of the reproductions were equal to the prototypes, though the sizes needed some adjustment. The time to do the feasibility study was very limited; therefore the products, though they had achieved the expected form, were left unfinished and unrefined.

The feasibility study conclusively demonstrated that, despite the lack of appropriate tools, a Bamboo Java worker with an average level of skill was capable of manufacturing products equal or better in quality as compared with the prototypes.

To summarize the conclusions from the opportunity segment of the feasibility study:

Bryn Griffiths, a student at the Royal College of Arts, London (from the Department of Industrial Design Engineering) agreed to contribute his Master Proof as a product sample for the furniture product group. Bryn’s concept matched the product requirements specified in this research in several ways. It brought out the superior qualities of bamboo (in this case, its strength and flexibility), and used a non-traditional process to create a product with a non-traditional function and appearance. Bryn worked with an advanced treatment process to demonstrate that advanced treatment can improve the performance of bamboo as a material. Bryn’s project was also aimed at a user group that was primarily urban with a higher standard of living, and the product was suitable for both domestic and export markets.

Although Bryn did not focus on appropriate technology, the advanced technology used would be appropriate if applied in a suitable environment, where high investment could be made in advanced machinery, sufficient material and supplies are available, and qualified human resources and a proper managerial system are in place. If the above conditions are met, a designer should not ignore the possible advantages of using advanced machinery and techniques.

Examples from the construction or building component groups are already available on the market. For instance, Plyboo, a company in Schellinkhout, the Netherlands, markets and distributes high-quality bamboo boards manufactured in China. As flooring, these strong and uniquely textured bamboo boards are superior to wooden ones, since they expand less in heat (so they can be placed more closely to the wall corners). Bamboo boards’ surface is also more durable than the surface of wooden boards since wear through friction is quite low. Plyboo boards have been used extensively in private homes. The boards have also used as flooring in an indoor basketball hall in Harlem and in the office of the Ministry of Environment in The Hague (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6: Bamboo board as flooring material

In the decorative elements & other products groups, Bamboo Java is a current source of many examples of woven products whose design and production have been improved to fulfill export standards. The owners of Bamboo Java are designers, and they develop the products by modifying traditional products to create products in many different sizes and shapes. They add accents by attaching other materials.

They have also made new designs that primarily use the traditional weaving technique as the production process. As the appearance of Bamboo Java products is that of traditional handicraft, their products do not meet the product requirements of this research. However, the production process fully meets the requirements of appropriate technology and was used, at least in part, as a model for the application of appropriate technology presented in this research.

Another product in the other product groups that meets many of the product requirements of this research is the coasters created by students of Prof. A.G. Rao. These coasters use a hybrid process, which combines a traditional preservation method with a non-traditional production process to create bamboo products with ‘modern’ quality and a sleek appearance (Fig. 7). Although traditional bamboo products from India are based on weaving techniques, similar to the techniques in Indonesia, the students did not use weaving in this project; gluing and bending techniques were used instead to form the products. The coasters were made through a lamination process and used simple jigs to shape the material.

Fig. 7: Coasters made of bamboo

Similar interests often lead people in the same direction. The attractiveness of these ‘newly-known’ potentials of bamboo as a material has drawn many people into discussion groups that focus on bamboo. Some of these groups can be tracked on the Internet where many samples of bamboo products (both new and traditional) can be found (Fig. 8). These samples show the wide variety of appearance that bamboo material can present, ranging from traditional woven forms to a very modern look (flat, smooth and simple).

Fig. 8: A bicycle with bamboo frame

New methods of treatment and contributions from designers can improve both the performance and the appearance of bamboo products. It is hoped that improved bamboo products that display the superior characteristics of bamboo will create a different image of the material: simple, modern and elegant. By exploring bamboo’s potential and highlighting its advantages through improved products, it is hoped that the stigma of bamboo, which has been reinforced by the traditional appearance of bamboo products, can be reduced.

A mapping of some sample bamboo products is given in Fig. 9, along with the salient features of each technology level.

Fig. 9: Mapping of samples according to technology levels

1. Traditional processes for traditional products (producers = end users of products).

Designers are not involved at all, since the designs of the products have been the same for centuries and the functions never change.

2. Hybrid processes for variation and modification of traditional products.

Designers develop the products based on the original traditional ones (artisans modify their products in this category). The changes are mostly variations in size and color of the products. Weaving technique is still mainly used as the production process. It is also possible to add other materials as supporting elements (as joints, to create accents, etc.)

3. Hybrid processes for new performance and appearance of bamboo products.

The new design is not based on the traditional products and production process. Designers explore bamboo as they explore other materials: based on documented physical and mechanical properties of the material, they respond to current requirements and propose a design that fulfills a clear function and has modern quality.

4. Hybrid processes for new performance and appearance of bamboo products.

The role of the designers is similar to level 3, but at this level pre-treated bamboo is used as the basic production material.

5. Advanced processes for new design of bamboo products.

The advanced methods are applied in the whole production process, though production materials can be used for products in the traditional and hybrid levels. Designers may use these improved methods optimally and be more creative in utilizing the available facilities. At this level, designers also design production materials (pre-assembled construction elements, building components, etc.) alongside the ‘ready-to-use’ final products.

1. Bamboo grows rapidly and matures within five years. Bamboo’s cell structures and technical properties resemble those of wood; yet, it is superior to most woods in both strength and elasticity. Therefore, as a renewable natural resource, bamboo can be a substitute or supplement material to wood, which is becoming increasingly scarce.

2. Producing bamboo goods has long been a source of secondary income to supplement income from agricultural work. Bamboo is very easy to obtain since it grows in abundance throughout Indonesia. The skills and tools to produce traditional bamboo goods are locally available and are part of the existing socio-cultural structure. The traditional technologies have been, in the past, fully appropriate to the environment both socio-culturally and environmentally.

3. At present, however, the situation has changed. A shortage of rice lands has led to widespread poverty and unemployment in rural Indonesia. The production of bamboo ware for sale is one possible solution to this situation. This transition from own-use to producer for an external market requires several changes:

4. The disadvantages created by traditional methods and design, combined with the extreme low cost of the material and its association with poor rural areas, attach a stigma to bamboo as a traditional material meant for low-end applications aimed at economically poor people.

5. Advanced preservation and treatment technologies for bamboo have been developed since the 1940s, and new treatments are currently being explored. These treatments can improve bamboo’s performance.

1. Non-traditional processes (manual processes other than traditional weaving) can expose bamboo’s superiority as a material for products with modern quality.

2. Designers can contribute to the development of bamboo products by:

3. Possible levels of technology in contemporary Indonesia can be divided into three groups: traditional, hybrid and advanced (mass production). Hybrid technology—where elements of traditional processes are combined with elements of advanced treatments, non-traditional process and the input of designers—is the most suitable level for bamboo industry development, given the current situation in Indonesia. The goals of hybrid technology appropriately applied are:

4. The creation and testing (feasibility) of some prototype products using a hybrid technology conclusively demonstrated that:

It was very early in the morning. The sun had just risen a few minutes before in the small village of Sukamaju in Tasikmalaya, West Java. Pak Saman looked around his living room. The 9 m² of space, with an opening to the backyard, is where he and his family work. Piled in one corner of the room was a stack of bamboo splits. In the other corner, a pile of bamboo cutlery lay ready to polish and across from it was a cardboard box filled with finished pieces.

Looking at the piles, Pak Saman’s mind wandered back to the day when Bu Tuti, his bandar, came to visit him, accompanied by a young woman he knew later as the designer of the cutlery. Bu Tuti had been his bandar for years; she bought his bamboo baskets regularly. Bu Tuti and the designer showed him the prototypes of the cutlery, and Bu Tuti asked if he could produce 1 000 pieces a month of the same goods in the same quality. It did not seem to be a problem, though these new products were totally different in appearance from his usual woven products. He tried making one right away while his guests waited. Within half an hour, using only the usual basket-making knives, he could make four rough pieces of cutlery. By then he knew that he and his family would be able to produce the cutlery with the same high quality if proper tools could be provided. The designer reminded him that uniformity in size and a smooth appearance were important. Bu Tuti told him that if the deal was made, he could produce the cutlery on priority and make the baskets on the side, if he had time left.

The next day, Bu Tuti brought the necessary tools, two chisels and a stack of sandpaper. In the evening, Pak Saman delivered a set of finished products. Bu Tuti and the designer were satisfied with his work and agreed to order 1 000 pieces. Bu Tuti would come once in a while to his home, as usual, to check on the work.

Pak Saman was checking the tools piled on a shelf by the door when his wife entered the room, calling him for breakfast. While enjoying his coffee and fried bananas, he asked his oldest son if he had checked the bamboo they had ordered, which should be available soon at the preservation site.

The preservation site was at the outskirts of the village, near a bamboo plantation set up about a decade ago. The plantation provided the raw material, while the preservation site prepared it for use by the bamboo artisans in Sukamaju village and several other neighboring villages in Tasikmalaya. The community was already working to upgrade from the traditional preservation method to Boucherie method, which will make the material even more durable and cut down the time taken to complete the preservation process. As the preservation site is close to the bamboo plantation, the process could be performed immediately after harvest, and a large enough area was available to accommodate the tools and machinery for the process and to dry the treated bamboo. Selected workers were already being trained in the Boucherie method, as the use of chemical substances needed to be strictly supervised in order to produce the proper result and to avoid spills or wastage that can damage the environment.

At the scale of operation considered, there would always be enough preserved raw material for the bamboo industry in Tasikmalaya. A truck ran regularly from the preservation area to each production village. Pak Saman’s son ordered the material monthly and picked it up from the town when it was delivered. The communal preservation and distribution system, provided by the Village Cooperation Unit, gave the Tasikmalaya artisans more time to concentrate on the production process.

The evening before, Pak Saman’s oldest son, using a cart, had picked up some bamboo poles that the truck had delivered to the Sukamaju community center. The material would be adequate for a full month’s work.

After breakfast, the Saman family was ready to face the day. Pak Saman watched his youngest children run off to school while his brother and his niece, Dina, who lived a couple of blocks away, greeted him through the gate and entered the house. They had come for the day’s work with the Saman family.

Pak Saman began to split the bamboo poles with a golok and to cut the long splits into pieces of the desired length with a handsaw, while his son and his brother, with a set of chisels, were carving the pieces to form cutlery sets, which would be polished by Bu Saman and Dina. With this working system, they could produce up to 300 pieces of cutlery per week. Bu Tuti told Pak Saman on the day she gave him the order that if the demand for the cutlery increased, the Saman family would need the support of simple machinery, to help with splitting the bamboo and sanding the pieces. These simple machines would increase productivity enormously.

Working at home, Bu Saman could also prepare meals for the family and take care of their livestock. Once in a while, Pak Saman would tend his fruit plantation in their backyard, which was another source of income for him. As the head of the family, Pak Saman supervised all the work his family did, especially the carving and forming, since he had to maintain the quality required by Bu Tuti and the designer.

Afternoon came, and Pak Saman’s youngest children came home from school. They rushed to the kitchen to have lunch and then went to the living room to join the rest of the family. Seeing her cousins come in, Dina checked the time and said that she had to go to her training class. The training class was held once a week in the Youth Center of Sukamaju, where youths of Sukamaju learned about bamboo production. There, Dina could meet friends of her own age who had finished their elementary education and were willing to be professionally trained in bamboo production. These youths received basic knowledge about the whole process of the bamboo products industry. However, they had different interests, and some would specialize in plantation and cultivation, some in raw material preservation, while the majority would learn the craft and skills to make bamboo products. Experts in each filed gave advanced training for specialization.

Dina had recently joined the advanced group for bamboo crafts. She wanted to be able to make high-quality products. Dina and her friends in this group had basic skills in bamboo weaving, taught by their older family members when they were much younger. In the training, skilled craftworkers taught them proper weaving techniques and sometimes introduced new weaving variations and tricks. The artisans reminded them to treasure the skill, since each unique craft was the heritage of their rich and precious culture. Sometimes there were designers who brought new designs for bamboo products, which were discussed and tried out in the workshop during the training session. The discussions about new designs familiarized Dina and her friends with the products they made. Dina had learned from the training that it was important to keep a precise and consistent quality.

After Dina left for the Youth Center, the youngest Saman children took her place in sanding the cutlery pieces and cleaning them with water. Pak Saman then counted the finished cutlery pieces, which were packed in a big cardboard box. By the end of the day, they had already produced more than 300 pieces, which meant that he could deliver the box to Bu Tuti that evening, as was promised.

Bu Tuti received all deliveries from her craftworkers in her house at the center of Tasikmalaya. She had been a bandar for Sukamaju artisans for years, and recognized well the potential and attitude of each of her craftworker. While waiting for Pak Saman that evening, her thoughts flew to the Udi family, from whom she ordered another kind of product. A designer had offered her the design for a magazine rack made of woven bamboo, which was intended for the export market. Bu Tuti had been exporting bamboo products for years and therefore was familiar with the procedure. She had specified the price of the product and guaranteed the volume per year, and the designer provided the necessary supplements for the product, such as packaging and proper labels. A complete package, including the prototypes made by Pak Udi, were sent to institutions abroad, such as Oxfam in the UK and CBI in the Netherlands, that examine products to be marketed in Europe. The product was approved and Bu Tuti was happy to receive a number of orders. The Udi family was producing the racks on a steady basis, even employing more workers to fulfill the order, and increasing their income.

Bu Tuti heard the sound of Pak Saman’s motorbike coming through her front gate just before dusk. She examined and counted the products and was satisfied with the overall result. She then gave Pak Saman the fee for the pieces he had delivered, and told him to keep up the good work and that she was looking forward for another delivery next week. Pak Saman was pleased; he made much more money making these new bamboo products than he did with only traditional products for the local marketplace.

On the following day, Bu Tuti went to her client, an airline merchandising company, to deliver Pak Saman’s cutlery. These pieces of cutlery were ordered by Garuda Indonesian Airways to use in domestic and international flights. The bamboo cutlery functioned well and passed all the flight regulations such as weight restriction, compatibility and flame resistance. The bamboo cutlery, which was still produced in limited quantities and was therefore exclusive, had already replaced metal cutlery in the first class section of the flights. This change was a pleasant surprise for the passengers, since the unusual cutlery was also a complementary gift from the airline. Several passengers had commented that they had no idea bamboo could look so smooth or be so elegant. The idea that bamboo was only for traditional woven products had already begun to change.

Focus considerable attention to their wood, Tend to neglect their bamboo, for example they:

for example they are proud to say, "We dropped Are used to say, "Bamboo is poor man’s material".

from the trees". Bamboo is regarded as a secondary material since

there was an adequate supply of wood in the past.

Derive the nation’s main income from wood Have important industries other than the bamboo

industries and have done so for centuries. industry.

Have wood as a dominant natural resource. Have other valuable natural resources.

Give much support to research and development Have not invested significantly in bamboo as an

of wood harvesting, treatments, etc. industry, except recently with the growing need for

"sustainable" materials.

Have abundant information on all aspects of Have insufficient data and documentation on

wood. bamboo and its utilization.

Use wood as a principle material for their craft Have various materials as medium for craftwork

and material culture. and material culture.

Tend to perceive wood products as everlasting. Do not regard bamboo as a durable material since

bamboo products can easily be replaced by new

ones and the plant itself grows very quickly.

Based on:

- Joedhawinata, R.C.H.1994. Strategi desain dalam pengembangan produk bambu. Environmental Bamboo Foundation, Bali, Indonesia. p. 3.

- Rao, A.G. 1994. An approach to bamboo craft. In Rao, A.G.; Madhavi Koli, ed., Bamboo craft design. Industrial Design Centre, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India. pp.106-107.

- Input from Imam B. Zaenuddin.

Originate mostly from traditional agricultural Originate mostly from industrial urban society

society in rural areas and receive general and are often trained formally, usually to

education, supplemented substantially by professional education or university levels, with

learning through direct experience. global methods and knowledge in design, mass

production, marketing, etc.

Are generalized, practical, industrious, nature- Are specialized, abstract, knowledge-based, time-

dependent, communal, religious. dependent, individual, secular.

Are limited in knowledge on materials and Are able to analyze broad possibilities to develop

processes though they are highly skilled and products through employing techniques acquired

specialized in specific products techniques, from various resources.

usually handed down from one generation

to another.

Are unfamiliar with demands of urban users. Are familiar with demands of urban users.

Possess first hand knowledge of bamboo Lack first hand knowledge of bamboo properties

properties and manual production processes. and manual production processes.

Are unfamiliar with strategies to manage and Are familiar with strategies to manage and market

market their products. their products.

Have direct experience of types and properties Lack readily available data on types and properties

of bamboo for product applications. of bamboo for product applications.

Are often their own products’ producers and By definition, design for the marketplace and the

users, so they sometimes incorporate their own producer.

character or taste preferences into their products.

Make products mostly by hand and use Generally propose industrial methods in production

relatively simple tools. processes.