1. Handmade bamboo paper

The production of hand-made paper is a traditional technology that has been practiced for hundreds of years. The procedures are well known and it is widely practiced in southern China. The products of hand-made paper include joss paper, writing paper, toilet paper and packing paper. Most of the mills are cottage and small-scale enterprises.

2. Development of handmade bamboo paper in China

Bamboo paper has been produced in China for at least one and a half thousand years. The book Tongtian Qinglu Ji (Record of Valuables in Caves) stated: "Most of the hand writing by the two Wangs referred to the famous calligraphers Wang Xizhi the father, and Wang Xianzhi the son during Jin Dynasty. In recent years, evidence indicates that the original inventor of bamboo paper was a native to Kuaiji, named Zhang Mao in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317 - 420AD). According to research conducted by Japanese Scholar Dr. Sawasinobi in the Liang Dynasty (502-55AD) the paper on which Buddhist scriptures were written contained bamboo fibres". This illustrates that bamboo paper has a long history in China. The Tang Dynasty was the peak period of feudalism, noted for political stability, cultural progress and economic prosperity. In frequent contacts with foreign countries, paper requirements increased rapidly. The raw bamboo materials were collected locally. In the "Manual of Paper", written by Su Yijian, it was said that the natives in Sichuan, Fujian, Shanzhou and Zhejiang used jute, fresh bamboo, liana and wheat or rice straw to make paper. After the Tang Dynasty, the variety of papers available multiplied and papers such as Yuban paper, Gongchuan paper, Shujian paper, Jingxiao paper, Biaoguang paper and Guangdu paper were produced. All these papers were made of plant fibres, with bamboo as the main source. Rags and waste jute were rarely used.

In the Song Dynasty, Bi Sheng invented the art of printing with wooden types and the development of the printing industry sped up the development of papermaking. In provinces such as Zhejiang and Fujian in South China great quantities of bamboo paper were being produced and paper quality improved. The bamboo paper made in Yuezhou in Zhejiang province became a popular product. Statesmen and men of letter such as Wang Anshi and Su Dongpo all preferred using bamboo paper to write on. They thought bamboo paper absorbed ink well and could show clearly the vigorous strokes. At the time many scholars followed their example. The famous calligrapher and artist Mi Fei wrote in the "History of Calligraphy": "With a hammer I often beat the Yuezhou bamboo paper which appears like a metal plate……". In the southern Song Dynasty the rapidly developing printing industry required large quantities of paper. The bamboo paper became increasingly refined, and enjoyed great popularity.

In the Ming Dynasty the production technology of bamboo paper was perfected. Song Yingxing gave details of the technology in his book "Tiangong Kaiwu" (Development of Agricultural and Industrial Production): Removal of Green Skin" with illustrations of equipment and operation. The key points were sorting and soaking raw materials, full boiling, pounding (beating) and bleaching, picking up with a bamboo screen, web pressing, sunning and drying. This was the earliest work recording in detail the production techniques of bamboo paper in China.

In China in 1949, the annual production of hand made paper was only 120, 000 tonnes. Since 1953, output has remained at about 200, 000 tonnes with highest output of 300,000 tonnes in 1954. After 1979 the reform and opening up policies reached the rural and mountain areas. As a result the production of handmade paper increased again. Up to 1985, the annual production stabilised at 260,000 tonnes. In Sichuan 364 paper mills and workshops were registered at the Industrial and Commercial Control Office with a production of 28, 400 tonnes. There was no statistical data available concerning the proportion of bamboo paper of the handmade paper but a rough estimate indicates that it was over 50%. In 1986, a Hand Made Paper Museum was built and opened in Jiajiang county. The museum has much historical data and systematically displays the technology of paper making with the bamboo paper as the main example.

3. General development attributes and advantages

The main development attributes of the technology are as follows:

• It is labour intensive

• Provides income generation for men and women
• Increases the use of sustainable bamboo resources
• Reduces dependency on timber wood for paper
• The work is gender sensitive

The main advantages of the technology are:

• Low input requirements for day-to-day management
• Low capital start-up costs
• Flexibility in production of different papers
• Higher price obtainable for handmade paper

4. Suitable agro-ecological regions

Handmade paper manufacturing is suitable for bamboo growing regions that can supply the raw material for its production. Regions of natural bamboo forest are suitable, but handmade paper could also be produced in areas where bamboo is grown on plantations or in homesteads. Management of plantations and natural stands is highly desirable, both to guarantee a standard level of supply to the unit and to maximise the benefits of the plantation to the owner and cultivators. The technology is especially suitable for areas where bamboo plantations are desirable for the restoration of degraded forests or wastelands such as abandoned shifting cultivation areas, or where bamboos can be grown to reduce soil erosion, particularly on steep slopes in high rainfall areas

5. Target groups and benefits

The main target group is those who will be employed in the unit. Manufacturing handmade paper is a traditional, labour-intensive, manual industry. Although some procedures require high levels of skill generally the technology is relatively simple such that that non-skilled farmers, even those with lower levels of education, can become competent in it after a short period of training. Manufacturing handmade paper generates employment for both men and women, ensures better income distribution and earns valuable foreign exchange through exports. The paper making units can be established particularly for poor households or communities in bamboo growing regions/countries. Additional beneficiaries will be the local cultivators and harvesters of bamboo who will benefit from increased demand for culms. Once the bamboo paper making industry has developed, the demands for bamboo raw materials will increase and this will attract more farmers to take up bamboo cultivation.

A handmade paper industry will bring financial income and foreign exchange for local economies and supply more, cheaper papers for local communities and possibly for other countries and regions. Additionally, the bamboo paper making industry will play an important role in poverty alleviation in bamboo growing regions, which are usually mountainous with poor transport access and a lack of energy, technology and finance. Bamboo-based industries are often one of only a handful of development options available for these regions.

According to statistical data from 1992 in China, the profit and tax-cost ratio, average profit and tax of one worker in the handmade paper manufacturing sector are shown in table 1.

Table 1 Benefits of handmade paper manufacturing in China in 1992

6. Requirements for success

A regular supply of bamboo culms, a stable workforce and a limited amount of start-up capital are required. Additionally technical assistance may be required in production, to organize seminars and training courses (management, production and maintenance) and to conduct relevant research and development programmes. In addition to providing extra income for the participants, the programmes intend to meet the requirements for skilled and trained workers in the industry, particularly for making high quality papers. Finance for purchasing/selling raw materials and semi-finished- or finished product is also required

Assistance will be needed to disseminate information on marketing. Institutional/economic policy supports are also required for the success of this sector to guide access to markets, introduce financial investment with preferential treatment on taxes and loans, and to establish technological systems and information service networks to train skilled workers.

7. Potential improvements and research needs

Research on further improvement and value addition of the products, and development of new technologies are not normally required to start a papermaking unit. But once the unit is established further development will be required to exploit new products, innovate processing technologies and improve value addition, so as to enhance the competitiveness and ease of access to international markets.

Concluding remarks

Establishing a handmade paper unit is an excellent means of bringing jobs and empowerment to local rural communities whilst ensuring and increasing the sustainable management of bamboo resources. The initial investment required is low and the unit is very labour intensive. The markets for handmade paper are growing and there may be opportunities to export the product. It is also an excellent means of promoting the sustainable management of bamboo stands and plantations.